NOTES 


ON 


MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES 


BY 

ERASMUS  M.  WEAVER 

MAJOR  GENERAL,  U.  S.  ARMY;  CHIEF  OF  COAST  ARTILLERY 


FOURTH  EDITION,  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS,  INC. 

LONDON:    CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  LIMITED 

1917 


COPYRIGHT,  1906,  1910,  1912,  1917, 

BY 

ERASMUS   M.  WEAVER. 


PRESS    OF 

BRAUNWORTH    &    CO. 

BOOK    MANUFACTURERS 

BROOKLYN,     N.     Y. 


PREFACE  TO  FOURTH  EDITION. 


EXHAUSTION  of  the  third  edition  of  these  "  Notes  on  Military 
Explosives  "  has  given  an  opportunity  to  bring  them  up-to- 
date  and  to  include  such  changes  bearing  upon  the  manufacture, 
use,  storage,  and  transportation  of  military  explosives  as  have 
developed  during  the  last  four  years.  It  has  particularly  given 
the  opportunity  to  introduce  certain  changes  that  have  developed 
in  connection  with  the  European  war.  The  more  important 
of  these  latter  changes  have  been  the  substitution  of  wood  pulp 
for  cotton  in  the  manufacture  of  the  nitrocellulose  explosives, 
and  the  fixation  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  by  the  three  separate 
processes  which  are  now  iployed.  Both  of  these  important 
changes  have  been  due  to  the  ingenuity,  cleverness,  and  skill 
of  the  German  chemists.  Generally  speaking,  there  have  been 
no  new  explosives  introduced,  and  it  would  seem  that  in  the 
matter  of  explosives  the  field  is  limited,  apparently  somewhat 
definitely,  to  the  nitrocellulose  series,  the'  nitroglycerin  series, 
the  nitrobenzene  series,  the  alkaline-metallic  nitrate  mixtures, 
and  to  a  combination  of  two  or  more  of  these  with  the  others. 
The  great  propellent  explosive  for  guns  continues  to  be  nitro- 
cellulose, alone  or  in  combination  with  nitroglycerin.  The 
explosive  for  charging  shells  appears  to  have  been  quite  defin- 
itely reduced  to  picric  acid  or  some  derivative  thereof;  that  for 
submarine  mines  and  torpedoes  to  trinitrotoluol  or  guncotton. 
As  to  the  old  nitrate  mixtures,  they  appear  to  be  limited  to  hand 
grenades,  rockets,  and  pyrotechnics. 

There  has  been  inserted  in  the  appendix  of  this  edition  a 
discussion  of  "  The  Role  of  Chemistry  in  the  War  "  by  Allerton 
S.  Cushman,  Ph.  D.,  Director  of  the  Institute  of  Industrial 


3595.10 


iv  PREFACE. 

Research,  Washington,  D.  C.;  which  sets  forth  better  than  any- 
thing that  has  come  to  the  attention  of  the  author,  the  basic 
chemical  action  of  nitrogen,  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen 
in  all  explosives. 

The  regulations  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  in 
regard  to  the  transportation  of  explosives  having  been  revised 
during  the  last  few  years,  the  new  regulations  are  substituted 
in  the  appendix  for  the  old. 

It  is  desired  to  make  acknowledgments  to  the  following 
individuals  for  assistance  in  the  collection  of  new  material  and 
in  the  modifications  introduced  into  this  edition:  Lieut.  Col. 
Wirt  Robinson,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  Mineralogy,  and  Geology, 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy,  who  has  very  kindly 
gone  over  the  notes  of  Chapter  I,  Principles  of  Chemistry, 
and  has  made  a  number  of  recommendations  in  regard  to  changes 
therein  which  have  been  adopted;  to  the  Chief  of  Ordnance, 
U.  S.  Army,  for  recent  data  in  regard  to  powders,  shell  fillers, 
and  methods  of  testing  and  storing  explosives;  to  the  President 
of  the  Army  War  College,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  information 
of  a  general  character  in  regard  to  recent  data  pertaining  to 
military  explosives  as  furnished  by  the  files  of  the  information 
division  of  the  War  College;  to  Professor  F.  W.  Clarke  of  the 
Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  information  in  regard 
to  recent  changes  in  atomic  weights;  to  Major  George  A. 
Nugent,  Coast  Artillery  Corps,  for  valuable  suggestions  in  regard 
to  changes  in  these  Notes;  to  Mr.  B.  H.  Meyer,  Chairman  of 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for 
the  revised  regulations  of  the  Commission  governing  the  trans- 
portation of  explosives;  and  to  my  secretary,  Mr.  S.  W.  Sower- 
butts,  for  valuable  clerical  assistance  and  for  suggestions  in 
regard  to  the  arrangement  of  these  Notes. 

E.  M.  WEAVER. 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 
November  20,  1916. 


CONTENTS. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY 

PAGE 

FORMS  OF  MATTER 1 

PROPERTIES  OF  ATOMS 3 

NOTATION 6 

REACTIONS 7 

NOMENCLATURE 9 

RADICALS 17 

GRAPHIC  FORMULAS 18 

ORGANIC  AND  INORGANIC  CHEMISTRY 21 

OBJECTS  OF  CHEMISTRY 22 

PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  PHENOMENA 22 

MIXTURES,  SOLUTIONS,  ALLOYS,  AMALGAMS 23 

FUNDAMENTAL  LAWS  . 27 

DETERMINATION  OF  ATOMIC  WEIGHTS 31 

CONDITIONS  INFLUENCING  AFFINITY ' 35 

STOICHIOMETRY 38 

PROBLEMS 41 


II. 

SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 

POTASSIUM  NITRATE 51 

SODIUM  NITRATE 54 

AMMONIUM  NITRATE 55 

BARIUM  NITRATE 57 

THE  CHLORATES 58 

SULPHUR 59 

CHARCOAL 61 

COMPOUNDS  OF  ORGANIC  ORIGIN 64 

THE  BENZENE  SERIES 67 

CHEMICAL  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  MILITARY  TRINITROTOLUOL.  . $>ld 

TESTS 81e 

ALCOHOL,  ETHERS,  KETONES 810 

v 


vi  CONTENTS. 

III. 
GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  EXPLOSIVES. 

PAGE 

EXPLOSION  PROPER 92 

DETONATION 95 

FULMINATION 96 

IV. 
PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES. 

CHARCOAL  POWDERS 98 

GRANULATION  OF  POWDER 104 

NITROCELLULOSE  POWDERS 107 

THE  NITRATION  OF  CELLULOSE 110 

NOMENCLATURE  OF  NITROCELLULOSES 120 

COLLOIDIZATION 122 

MANUFACTURE  OF  SMOKELESS  POWDER 123 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  SMOKELESS  POWDERS 130 


V. 

DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES. 

GUNCOTTON : 135 

NITROGLYCERINE 144 

DYNAMITES 152 

EXPLOSIVE  GELATIN 159 

PICRIC-ACID  DERIVATIVES 161 

ORDNANCE  BOARD,  U.  S.  ARMY,  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  HIGH  EXPLOSIVES 

FOR  SHELL 162 

VI. 

EXPLODERS • 167 

VII. 
SERVICE  TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  TESTS 179 

APPARATUS  REQUIRED  FOR  THE  POTASSIUM-IODIDE-STARCH  TEST 180 

(a)  DYNAMITE,  NITROGLYCERINE,  AND  EXPLOSIVE  GELATIN 182 

(6)  GUNCOTTON 185 

(c)  SMOKELESS  POWDER 186 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

PAGE 

MANUFACTURE,  INSPECTION  AND  TEST .- 190 

1.  RAW  MATERIALS 190 

2.  NITROCELLULOSE  MANUFACTURING  PROCESSES 192 

3.  TESTING  NITROCELLULOSE 194 

4.  SMOKELESS  POWDER  MANUFACTURING  PROCESSES 198 

5.  TESTS  OF  SMOKELESS  POWDER 201 

SPECIAL  SPECIFICATIONS  AND  TESTS  FOR  SMOKELESS  POWDER  FOR  SMALL 

ARMS 207 

GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS 207 

POWDER  FOR  BALL  CARTRIDGES  FOR  SMALL  ARMS 209 

VELOCITY  AND  PRESSURE  TESTS 211 

VIII. 
STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES  FOR  STORAGE 214 

VENTILATION  OF  MAGAZINES 219 

LIGHTING 228 

SPECIAL  STORAGE  REGULATIONS  FOR  HIGH  EXPLOSIVES 229 

EXAMINATION  OF  SMOKELESS  POWDER  IN  MAGAZINES 231 

MINIMUM  SAFE  DISTANCES -OF  BARRICADED  STORAGE  MAGAZINES  FROM 

INHABITED  BUILDINGS 238 

IX. 
HANDLING  HIGH  EXPLOSIVES. 

SUMMARY  OF  PRECAUTIONS  OF  A  GENERAL  NATURE  TO  BE  OBSERVED  IN 

HANDLING  EXPLOSIVES 240 

PRECAUTIONS  TO  BE  OBSERVED  IN  CHARGING  TORPEDOES  AND  SHELL  WITH 

HIGH  EXPLOSIVES 241 

SAFETY  PRECAUTIONS  IN  PREPARING  TO  FIRE  DEMOLITION  CHARGES  242 

PREPARING  A  CHARGE  FOR  FIRING 244 

X. 

DEMOLITIONS. 

BUILDINGS 253 

BRIDGES 257 

IRON  PLATES 262 

SUBAQUEOUS  DEMOLITIONS 262 

MASONRY  TUNNELS 263 

STOCKADES  OR  BARRIERS 264 

DEMOLITION  OF  RAILROADS.  ...  .  264 


viii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

LAND-MINES 265 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  CHARGES 266 

SUMMARY  OF  CHARGES  FOR  HASTY  DEMOLITIONS .  268 


APPENDIX. 

LABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS 271 

LABORATORY  NOTES 293 

INTERSTATE  COMMERCE  COMMISSION  REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  TRANSPOR- 
TATION OF  EXPLOSIVES 305 

LAW  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  REGULATING  THE  TRANSPORTATION  OF 

EXPLOSIVES 345 

INTERNATIONAL  ATOMIC  WEIGHTS,  1917 372 

ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR..  .  349 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


I. 

PRINCIPLES    OF   CHEMISTRY. 

1.  Before  entering  upon  a  study  of  explosives  it  is  desir- 
able that  some  knowledge  be  had  of  the  fundamental  chemical 
principles  involved  in  the  composition  of  explosive  substances 
and  in  the  changes  which  take  place  in  connection  with  explosive 
phenomena.      To  this  end  a  brief  review  will  be  given  of  the 
simple  chemical  laws,  the  system  of  notation,  the  meaning  of 
chemical  reactions,  the  relations  of  volumes  and  weights  in 
these  reactions,  and  problems  arising  thereunder. 

Forms  of  Matter. 

2.  As  a  foundation,  it  is  well  to  have  some  conception  of 
the  forms  of  matter  as  generally  conceived  at  the  present  time. 
With    this   in  view  it  is   convenient    to    consider   matter    as 
occurring  in  the  three  following  forms : 

(a)  In  the  mass;  including  all  aggregations  from  the  smallest 
quantity  perceptible  to  our  senses  to  the  great  masses 
of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

(6)  In  the  molecule;  which  is  defined  to  be  that  portion  of 
a  substance  which  has  reached  the  limit  of  subdivision 
by  physical  means;  that  smallest  portion  of  a  given 
mass  of  a  substance  which,  in  a  progressive  process 
of  subdivision,  would  retain  all  and  only  the  properties 
of  the  substanee.  If  by  any  means  a  further  sub- 
division be  effected,  some  or  all  of  the  properties  of 
the  substance  would  be  changed. 

(c)  In  the  atom;  which  is  the  smallest  portion  of  any  given 
kind  of  simple  matter  that  has  been  differentiated 
in  scientific  investigations  by  reasoning  processes.1 

3.  The  atom  is  the  ultimate  unit  of  matter  so  far  as  known; * 

1  As  a  result  of  investigations  consequent  on  the  discovery  of  radium 
and  the  properties  of  other  radio-active  substances,  a  new  theory  of  the 


2  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

the  molecule  is  an  aggregation  of  atoms;   the  mass,  or  body,  is 
an  aggregation  of  molecules. 

4.  A  body  may  be  homogeneous,  like  a  piece  of  copper  or 
salt,  or  heterogeneous,  like  a  piece  of  granite.     Homogeneous 
bodies  contain  only  one  kind  of  matter;    heterogeneous,  more 
than  one  kind;  granite,  for  example,  is  made  up  of  three  kinds 
of  matter  called,  respectively,  feldspar,  quartz,  and  mica. 

5.  Homogeneous  matter  implies  only  similarity  of  the  mole- 
cules;  it  is  made  up  of  similar  molecules.     With  similar  mole- 
cules there  would  of  course,  from  the  definition  of  a  molecule, 
be  similar  physical  properties  throughout  the  mass. 

6.  It  is  known  that  molecules  are  of  two  kinds  also:   those 
made  up  of  atoms  of  the  same  kind  and  those  made  up  of  atoms 
of  different  kinds.    The  former  are  called  elementary  molecules; 
the  latter,  compound  molecules. 


constitution  of  matter  has  been  enunciated.  According  to  this  theory,  the 
atom  of  any  elementary  substance  is  made  up  of  particles  charged  with  nega- 
tive electricity,  suspended  throughout  a  larger  mass  charged  with  positive 
electricity.  The  number  of  negative  particles  and  the  resulting  attractions 
and  repulsions  between  the  charged  negative  and  positive  masses  determine 
the  constitution  of  the  atom.  The  negative  particles  are  called  corpuscles, 
and  the  theory,  from  these,  is  called  the  corpuscular  theory  of  matter.  Since 
the  atom  is  ordinarily  neutral,  the  quantity  of  negative  charge  must  equal  the 
quantity  of  positive  charge.  The  mass  of  a  corpuscle  is  constant,  and  is 
computed  to  be  about  y^Vu  °f  the  mass  of  the  hydrogen  atom.  Assuming  the 
corpuscle  to  be  a  sphere,  its  radius  is  computed  to  be  about  10~13  cm.,  and 
its  ratio  to  the  radius  of  the  hydrogen  atom  about  10" 8.  The  masses  posi- 
tively charged  appear  to  vary;  the  smallest,  however,  is  at  least  equal  to 
the  hydrogen  atom. 

The  foregoing  theory  is  that  as  enunciated  by  J.  J.  Thomson.  A  recent 
modification  of  this  theory  by  Sir  Ernest  Rutherford  contemplates  that  the 
positive  electricity  is  not  diffused,  as  in  Thomson's  theory,  but  concentrated 
in  a  central  nucleus  which  is  surrounded  by  rings  of  electrons;  50  of  these 
rings  .mean  50  charges.  Experiments  show  that  this  nucleus  must  be  ex- 
ceedingly small,  10~12  cm.  in  diameter,  the  orbit  diameter  of  the  rings  being 
10~8  cm.  Thomson's  theory  contemplates  an  extended  positive  nucleus, 
within  which  the  electrons  revolve  in  Saturnian  orbits;  Rutherford's  theory, 
of  an  extremely  small  concentrated  nucleus  with  electrons  in  planetary  or 
Saturnian  orbits.  Two  facts  seem  to  be  generally  accepted:  (1)  All  atoms 
contain  electrons  as  part  of  their  constitution;  of  these  electrons  the  atoms 
may  lose  a  certain  number  without  altering  their  chemical  identity,  while 
the  loss  of  other  sets  change  them  into  different  elements;  this  is  certainly 
true  for  radio-active  elements,  and  the  law  probably  extends  to  all  the  ele- 
ments. (2)  There  exist  also  positively-charged  nuclei  associated  with  the 
atomic  mass,  containing  multiples  of  the  fundamental  electric  charge,  and 
the  chemical  nature  of  the  element  seems  to  be  determined  by  this  multiple 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  3 

7.  Homogeneous  bodies  made  up  of  the  same  elementary 
molecules  are  called  elements;   if  made  up  of  compound  mole- 
cules, they  are  called  compounds. 

8.  Any  body  will  be  either  (1)  homogeneous  and  an  element 
or  a  compound,  or  (2)  heterogeneous,  made  up  of  different  ele- 
ments or  compounds,  or  a  mixture  of  these  two  classes;  this 
form  of  matter  is  also  called  a  mixture. 

9.  More  than   eighty   elements  have  been  isolated;   that  is, 
so  far  as  known  at  present  there  are  at  least  this  number  of 
different  atoms.     Future  investigations  may  discover  new  ele- 
ments, or  disclose  that  some  now  thought  to  be  elements  are 
compounds. 

Properties  of  Atoms. 

10.  The  atom  of  each  element  has  its  own  proper  weight, 
which  is  different  from  the  weight  of  any  other  atom.     The 
lightest  known  atom  is  that  of  the  element  Hydrogen;    the 
weights  of  all  other  atoms  are  expressed  in  terms  of  the  weight 
of  the  hydrogen  atom  as  a  unit. 

11.  The  elements  are  grouped  into  two  classes,  namely: 

(1)  The   metals;    those   possessing  properties  like   copper, 

iron,  gold,  etc. 

(2)  The  non-metals;   those  possessing  properties  like  carbon 

(charcoal,  graphite,  diamond),  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
etc. 

12.  The  following  are  the  names  of  the  most  important 
elements,  and  opposite  each  name  is  placed  the  weight  of  its 
atom  to  the  nearest  unit  in  terms  of  the  hydrogen  atom. 

METALS. 

Name.  At.  Wt.  Symbol.  Valency. 

1.  Potassium 39  K' (Kalium)  I. 

2.  Sodium 23  Na'  (Natrium)  I. 

3.  Barium 136  Ba"  II. 

4.  Strontium 87  Sr"  II. 

5.  Calcium 40  Ca"  II. 

6.  Magnesium 24  Mg"  II. 

7.  Aluminum 27  Al'"  III. 

8.  Zinc..  65  Zn"  II. 


4  NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

METALS— Continued. 

Name.  At.  Wt.  SymboL  Valency. 

9.  Nickel 58  Ni"/'"  II  or  III. 

10.  Cobalt 59  Co"/"'  II  or  III. 

11.  Iron 56  Fe"/'"  (Ferrum)  II  or  III. 

12.  Manganese 55  Mn'Viv  II  Or  IV. 

13.  Chromium 52  Cr'"/vi  HI  Or  VI. 

14.  Copper 63  Cu'/"  (Cuprum)  I  or  II. 

15.  Lead 205  Pb"  (Plumbum)  II. 

16.  Tin 118  Sn'Viv  (Stannum)  II  or  IV. 

17.  Tungsten 183  Wvi  (Wolframium)  VI. 

18.  Antimony 119  Sb"'/v  (Stibium)  III  or  V. 

19.  Mercury 199  HgV"  (Hydrargyrum)       [I  or  II. 

20.  Silver 107  Ag'  (Argentum)  I. 

21.  Gold 196  Au"'  (Aurum)  III. 

22.  Platinum 194  Pf'/iv  II  Or  IV. 

NON-METALS. 

1.  Oxygen 16  O"  l  II. 

2.  Hydrogen 1  H'  I. 

3.  Nitrogen 14  N'"/v  III  or  V. 

4.  Carbon 12  -Dv  IV. 

5.  Silicon 28  Si  iv  IV. 

6.  Sulphur 32  S"  II. 

7.  Phosphorus 31  P'"/v  HI  Or  V. 

8.  Chlorine 35  Cl'  I. 

9.-  Iodine 126  I'  I. 

10.  Bromine 79        Br'  I. 

11.  Fluorine 19        F'  I. 

13.  These  twenty-two  metals  and  eleven  non-metals,  either 
separately  or  in  combination,  make  up  more  than  ninety  per 
cent  of  all  known  matter.    The  weights  of  these  atoms  are 
the  constants  in  all  chemical  computations  in  which  they  enter. 

14.  Besides  weight,  atoms  possess  another  important  prop- 
erty.    They  have  mutual  attractions  for  the  same  kind  and  for 

1  As  to  the  standard  for  atomic  weights,  some  chemists  prefer  to  take  the 
weight  of  the  oxygen  atom  as  the  standard,  calling  it  16,  instead  of  that  of 
the  hydrogen  atom,  unity.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  oxygen  forms  a 
greater  number  of  compounds,  and  they  are  susceptible  of  more  exact  analysis 
than  many  of  the  hydrogen  compounds.  An  uncertainty  exists  as  to  the  ratio 
between  the  atomic  weights  of  H  andO.  Late  determinations  make  0  =  15.8 
when  H  =  l,  or  H  =  1.008  when  O  =  16.  The  International  Atomic  Weights 
for  the  year  1917  on  the  latter  basis  are  given  in  the  Appendix,  page  372. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  5 

certain  different  kinds  of  atoms.  The  intensity  of  these  attrac- 
tions vary  for  different  atoms,  but,  like  the  weights,  are  always 
constant  for  the  same  atom.  This  attraction  existing  among 
atoms  is  called  affinity,  or  chemical  affinity.  Just  as  gravity  or 
weight  is  a  property  of  matter  in  mass,  by  means  of  which 
bodies  fall  to  the  earth,  so  affinity  is  a  property  of  atoms,  by 
means  of  which  they  come  together  and  combine,  when  released 
from  one  set  of  conditions  in  a  molecule,  to  form  a  new  set  in 
a  new  molecule.  Atoms  do  not  as  a  rule  exist  separately  in 
nature;  if  free,  they  will  associate  themselves  either  with  atoms 
of  the  same  kind  or  with  atoms  of  a  different  kind,  forming 
thereby  the  elementary  and  compound  molecules  described 
above. 

15.  Atoms  have  still  another  important  property.     In  the 
molecules  formed  by  the  action  of  the  so-called  force  of  affinity, 
as  described  in  the  last  paragraph,  it  is  found  that  one  atom 
requires  one,  two,  three,  and  so  on,  atoms  of  other  elements  to 
combine  with  it  to  form  molecules.     This  property  of  atoms 
which  determines  the  relative  number  of  atoms,  in  any  case,  that 
enter  into  chemical  combination  in  forming  molecules  is  called 
valency. 

1 6.  Elements  are  classified  according  to  the  valency  of  their 
respective  atoms.    The  valency  of  the  hydrogen  atom  is  taken 
as  the  unit  of  valency. 

17.  There  are  certain  atoms  that  do  not  combine  with  the 
hydrogen  atom.    The  valency  of  the  atoms  of  elements  whose 
atoms  do  not   combine   directly  with  the  hydrogen  atom  is 
determined  through  their  combination  with  the  atom  of  some 
element  that  does  combine  with  the  hydrogen  atom.    Thus: 
the  lead  atom  and  the  zinc  atom  do  not  combine  with  the  hydro- 
gen atom,  but  all  three  of  these  atoms  combine  separately  with 
the  oxygen  atom,  and  from  this  fact  the  relative  valencies  of  the 
lead  and  zinc  atoms  may  be  obtained  with  respect  to  hydrogen. 

18.  An  element  whose  atom  has  the  same  combining  power 
(valency)  as  the  hydrogen  atom,  that  is,  combines  atom  for 
atom  with  the  hydrogen  atom  or  its  equivalent,  is  said  to  be 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

univalent,  or  is  called  a  monad.  An  element  whose  atom  has 
twice  the  combining  power  of  the  hydrogen  atom,  that  is,  will 
combine  with  two  atoms  of  hydrogen,  or  two  atoms  of  any 
univalent  element,  is  said  to  be  bivalent,  or  is  called  a  dyad. 
An  element  whose  atom  has  three  times  the  valency  of  the 
hydrogen  atom  is  said  to  be  trivaknt,  or  is  called  a  triad,  and 
so  on.  The  degree  of  valency  is  represented  by  small  ticks  or 
Roman  numerals  placed  to  the  right  and  above  the  atomic  sym- 
bol, thus :  H',  0",  N'",  CIV  (see  table,  pages  3  and  4,  for  valencies) . 

Notation. 

19.  For  convenience,  atoms  are  represented  in  chemistry 
by  symbols.    These  symbols  are  the  initial  letters  of  the  ordinary 
or  Latin  names  of  the  elements,  or  the  initial  and  one  other 
letter  selected  therefrom.    These  symbols  are  also  often  used 
as  abbreviations  of  the  name  of  the  element.    These  two  uses 
should  be  kept  distinctly  in  the  mind.    In  all  chemical  equa- 
tions and  computations  the  symbols  represent  definitely  the 
weights  of  atoms.    The  symbols  of  the  more  important  ele- 
ments will  be  found  in  the  table  on  pages  3  and  4. 

20.  A  single  atom  is  represented  by  the  simple  symbol. 
Thus:   one  atom  of  hydrogen,  H;    one  atom  of  calcium,  Ca; 
one  atom  of  lead,  Pb. 

21.  Two  or  more  atoms  may  be  represented  either  by  placing 
the  number  as  a  coefficient  in  front  of  the  symbol,  or  writing 
it  as  a  subscript  to  the  right  and  below.    Thus:  two  atoms  of 
oxygen,  20  or  02;  three  atoms  of  iron,  3Fe  or  Fes. 

22.  An  elementary  molecule  composed  of  two  atoms  would 
be  indicated  as  explained  in  the  last  paragraph.    Thus,  the 
molecule  of  nitrogen  contains  two  atoms;   it  is  represented  by 
N2.    The  molecule  of  phosphorus  contains  four  atoms;    its 
molecule  would  be  expressed  by  ?4. 

23.  A  compound  molecule  is  represented  by  writing  the 
symbol  of  each  element  which  enters  it  side  by  side,  and  giving 
to  each  symbol  a  numeral  subscript  to  indicate  the  number  of 
atoms  of  each  element.    Thus:  the  molecule  of  sulphuric  acid 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  ^ 

is  known  to  contain  two  atoms  of  hydrogen,  one  atom  of  sul- 
phur, and  four  atoms  of  oxygen;  it  would  be  represented  in 
symbolic  notation  by  H2S04.  In  the  same  way,  the  molecule 
of  alcohol  is  known  to  contain  two  atoms  of  carbon,  six  atoms 
of  hydrogen,  and  one  atom  of  oxygen;  its  molecular  symbol 
would  be  C2H60.  The  group  of  symbols  used  to  represent  a 
compound  molecule  is  called  the  formula  of  the  compound,  or 
the  molecular  formula  of  the  compound. 

24.  In  case  two  or  more  molecules  of  the  same  compound 
are  considered,  the  proper  coefficient  is  placed  before  the  symbol, 
or  a  parenthesis  may  be  placed  about  the  symbol  and  the 
number  of  molecules  indicated  by  a  numeral  subscript.    Thus: 
two  molecules  of  sulphuric  acid,  2H2S04  or  (H2S04)2;    three 
molecules  of  alcohol,  3C2H60  or  (C2H60)3. 

Reactions. 

25.  These  symbols  are  made  use  of  in  chemical  writings  in 
indicating  the  changes  which  take  place  when  chemically  inter- 
active substances  are  brought  together  under  conditions  which 
excite  or  permit  interaction  among  their  constituents.     This  is 
done  by  representing  the  substances  which  are  brought  together 
by  their  proper  symbols,  writing  the  sign  plus  (  +  )  between  the 
symbols  of  the  separate  substances  used,  writing  the  equality 
sign  (=)  after  the  last  substance  used,  then  writing,  in  the 
same  way,  the  symbols  of  the  substances  resulting  from  the 
chemical  combinations  which  have  taken  place.    That  is,  the 
form  of  an  equation  is  made  use  of  to  abbreviate  the  description 
that  would  otherwise  be  necessary.     For  example,  the  fact  that 
58  parts  by  weight  of  common  salt  (symbol  NaCl)  mixed  with 
63  parts  of  nitric  acid  (symbol  HN03)  produces  85  parts  of 
sodium  nitrate  (symbol  NaN03)  and  36  parts  of  hydrochloric 
acid  (symbol  HC1)  would  be  represented  thus: 

NaCl  +  HN03  -  NaN03  +  HC1. 

Such  an  equation  is  only  a  means  to  abbreviate  the  description 
of  chemical  changes  by  using  symbols.  It  is  called  a  reac- 


8  NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

tion.    The  substances  on  the  left  of  the  equality  sign  are  called 
reagents]  those  on  the  right,  products. 

26.  It  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind  that  such  equations 
are  quite  different  from  algebraic  equations.     No  mathematical 
operations  can  be  performed  with  them.     They  simply  express 
the  fact  that  the  substances  on  the  left  of  the  equality  sign  will 
produce  those  on  the  right.     The  total  numbers  of  each  kind 
of  atom  and  the  total  weights  must,  of  course,  be  the  same  on 
each  side;  in  this  sense,  only,  are  reactions  equations. 

27.  There  are  three  kinds  of  reactions,  namely,  analytical, 
synthetical,  metathetical.     An  analytical  reaction  involves  a  dis- 
integration of  a  compound,  separating  the  constituent  elements, 
or  reducing  it  to  simpler  chemical  forms.     For  example,  lime- 
stone is  a  compound  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  calcium,  and  if  a 
piece  of  limestone  be  heated,  some  of  the  carbon  and  oxygen 
will  pass  off,  in  combination,  as  a  gas,  leaving  the  calcium  and 
the  rest  of  the  oxygen  in  combination.     This  reaction  may  be 
represented  as  follows: 

CaC03  +  heat  -  CaO  +  C02 

Limestone  Lime     Carbonic- 

acid  gas. 

A  synthetical  reaction  involves  a  combination  of  elements 
or  compounds  and  the  formation  of  substances  of  a  more  com- 
plex nature  than  the  original  ones.  Thus,  if  sulphur  be  heated 
to  a  high  temperature  in  an  atmosphere  of  oxygen,  the  oxygen 
and  sulphur  will  combine,  forming  a  sulphur-oxygen  compound. 
The  reaction  would  be  represented  as  follows  : 


If  this  compound  be  mixed  with  water,  a  new  compound  is 
formed,  the  reaction  being  represented  as  follows: 


A  metathetical  reaction  involves  the  interchange  of  atoms 
between  two  substances,  or  the  displacement  of  one  element 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  9 

in  a  compound  by  a  single  separate  Element  or  a  group  of  ele- 
ments. Thus,  if  a  solution  of  common  salt  (sodium  chloride) 
be  treated  with  a  solution  of  silver  nitrate,  the  sodium  of  the 
salt  and  the  silver  of  the  nitrate  will  exchange  places,  giving 
silver  chloride  and  sodium  nitrate,  the  reaction  being  repre- 
sented as  follows: 

NaCl  +  AgN03  =  AgCl  +  NaN03. 

Again,  if  metallic  zinc  be  immersed  in  hydrochloric  acid, 
the  zinc  will  displace  the  hydrogen  of  the  acid,  the  reaction 
being  represented  as  follows  : 


Nomenclature. 

28.  There  are  certain  rules  followed  in  the  naming  of  the 
elements  and  compounds  which  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  : 

29.  The  more  recently  discovered  metals  have  names  ending 
in  urn,  and  some  of  the  more  recently  discovered  non-metals 
have    names    ending    in    ine.     Examples:     metals  —  sodium, 
ferrum;  non-metals—  chlorine,  iodine. 

30.  Compounds  composed  of  two  elements  are  called  binary 
compounds.     Such  compounds  are  written  with  the  symbol  of 
the  non-metal  or  the  more  non-metallic  element  last,  and  the 
name  of  the  compound  is  given  by  the  name  of  the  first  element 
followed  by  the  name  of  -the  second  element  with  the  ending 
ide.    Thus:   common  salt  is  a  compound  of  the  metal  sodium 
and  the  non-metal  chlorine;  its  symbol  would  be  written  thus, 
NaCl,  and  its  name  is  given  by  the  name  of  the  metal  followed 
by  the  name  of   the   non-metal,  replacing   the  ending  ine  by 
ide,   making    the  full    name    of   the   binary   sodium   chloride. 
In  the  same  way,  FeO  is  iron  oxide;   NO,  nitrogen  oxide;  CO, 
carbon  oxide. 

31.  The  combination  of  oxygen  with  another  element  fol- 
lows this  nomenclature  rule,  forming  a  large  class  of  binary 
compounds  called  "oxides."     Oxygen  combines  with  a  great 


io  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

many  elements,  some  metallic  and  others  non-metallic;1  the 
resulting  binary  compounds  constitute  two  distinct  classes  of 
oxides.  These  two  classes  have  distinct  properties,  and  are 
called,  respectively,  the  metallic  or  basic  oxides  and  the  non- 
metallic  or  acid  oxides. 

32.  The  terms   base  and  basic,   acid  and  acidic  have  im- 
portant meanings  in  chemistry.    They  are  suggestive  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  force  of  affinity  will  act  in  any  particular 
case.     Bases  and  acids  are  the  opposites  in  chemical  action. 
A  substance  that  possesses  basic  properties  suggests  chemical 
union  with  a  substance  possessing  acidic  properties.    The  ten- 
dency of  bases  and  acids  to  combine  depends  on  their  strengths 
as  bases  and  acids;    the  strongest  or  most  pronounced  bases 
have  the  greatest  tendency  to  unite  chemically  with  the  strongest 
acids.     As  the  two  classes — bases  and  acids — approach  each 
other  in  the  scale  of  chemical  affinity,  the  tendency  to  unite  is 
less  marked.     Difference  of  chemical  affinity  is,  as  it  were,  a 
difference   of  chemical  potential.    As   difference   of  electrical 
potential  suggests  capacity  for  electrical  work,  so  the  relative 
basic  or  acidic  properties  of  substances  suggest  capacity  for 
chemical  combination. 

33.  Speaking  generally,  the  result  of  the  combination  of 
basic  and  acidic  substances  is  a  third  class  of  substances  called 
salts.    Many  salts  possess  neither  basic  nor  acidic  properties: 
they  are  the  chemical  neutrals;   such  represent  zero  difference 
of  chemical  potential  under  the  particular  conditions. 

34.  There    are    simple    tests  to  determine  whether  certain 
particular  substances  are  basic,  acidic,  or  neutral.    A  substance 
that  is  chemically  active  as  an  acid  will  turn  blue  litmus  red; 
one  that  is  chemically  active  as  a  base  will  turn  reddened  litmus 
blue.    A  salt  that  is  perfectly  neutral  will  have  no  effect  on 
either  red  or  blue  litmus.    There  are  other  color  tests  for  acids 
and  bases,  and,  of  course,  the  whole  range  of  chemical  reactions 
to  determine  the  basic,  acidic,  or  neutral  properties  of  sub- 

1  See  Experiments  Nos.  1  and  3. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  n 

stances  and  the  degree  thereof,  but  the  litmus  test  is  sufficient 
for  the  limits  of  these  notes. 

35.  The  principles  given  in  paragraphs  32  and  33  give  rise 
to  a  general  classification  of  substances  into  bases,  acids,  and 
salts. 

36.  There  are  other  rules  governing  the  naming  of  com- 
pounds which  may  be  introduced  here. 

37.  Both  prefixes  and  suffixes  are  resorted  to  to  specify  par- 
ticular   compounds.     For    example,    nitrogen    combines    with 
oxygen  in  several  proportions,  forming  separate  oxides;    these 
may  be  written  as  follows : 

1.  N20 Nitrogen  monoxide. 

2.  N202 Nitrogen  dioxide. 

3.  N203 Nitrogen  Jnoxide. 

4.  N204 Nitrogen  tetroxide. 

5.  N205 Nitrogen  pentoxide. 

They  are  designated  by  using  the  prefixes  mon-,  di-,  tri-,  tetra-, 
and  pent-  before  the  word  oxide,  as  indicated  above. 

38.  Binary  compounds  in  which  there  are  three  atoms  of  the 
second  element  to  two  atoms  of  the  first  element  may  be  desig- 
nated by  the  prefix  sesqui-  placed  before  the  second  with  its 
proper  ending.     Thus,  N203  is  nitrogen  sesquioxide ;  Fe203  is 
iron  sesquioxide;  Sb2S3  is  antimony  sesquisulphide. 

39.  The  suffixes  -ous  and  -ic  are  used  after  the  first  element 
of  a  binary  compound  to  indicate  which  of  two  compounds  is 
meant,  in  cases  where  but  two  compounds  are  formed  between 
the  two  elements  considered,  or  in  cases  where  there  are  several 
and  two  are  more  important.     Thus :  sulphur  forms  two  princi- 
pal oxides,  namely,  S02  and  S03;  the  first,  or  lower,  degree  of 
oxidation  takes  the  suffix  -ous,  being  called  sulphurous  oxide 
(or  sulphur  dioxide);    the  second,  or  higher,  oxide  takes  the 
suffix  -ic  and  is  called  sulphuric  oxide    (or  sulphur  trioxide). 
Also,  iron  forms  three  oxides,  FeO,  Fe203,  and  Fe304;  the  first 
is  called  f err 01*5  oxide,  and  the  second  ferric  oxide. 


12  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

40.  The  prefix  hypo-  is  sometimes  used  before  a  compound 
to  indicate  a  still  lower  degree  of  oxidation  than  the  -ous.    Thus, 
there  is  a  /ii/posulphurous  acid  which  contains  less  oxygen  than 
sulphurous  acid. 

41.  The  prefix  hyper-  is  similarly  used  before  compounds  to 
indicate  a  higher  oxidation;   and  the  prefix  per-  to  indicate  the 
highest  degree  of  oxidation.    Thus  Fe304  above  is  the  peroxide 
of  iron,  or  iron  peroxide. 

42.  While  these  uses  of  prefixes  and  suffixes  are  explained 
for  oxides  only,  they  may  be  used  also  in  the  case  of  other 
compounds;     in  all  cases  they  indicate  the  degree  of  combina- 
tion  of    the   non-metallic   element.     Thus,   mercury  has   two 
chlorides,   HgCl    and  HgCl2.     The   former  is  mercury  mono- 
chloride,  or  mercurows  chloride;  the  latter  is  mercury  bichloride, 
or  mercuric  chloride,  or  mercury  perchloride. 

43.  Instead  of  using  the  metal  or  more  metallic  element  as 
an  adjective  and  the  rion-metal  or  more  non-metallic  element 
as  a  noun,  it  is  just  as  correct  to  use  the  prepositional  phrase 
equivalent.     For  example,  instead  of  nitrogen  dioxide,  the  dioxide 
of  nitrogen;    instead  of  mercury  perchloride,  the  perchloride  of 
mercury,  etc. 

44.  The  prefix  proto-  is  used  to  indicate  the  lowest  combi- 
nation with  the  non-metallic  element;   thus,  HgCl   above    is 
sometimes  called  the  protochloride  of  mercury,  PbO,  the  prot- 
oxide of  lead,  etc. 

45.  Many  of  the  acid  oxides,  like  S02,  S03,  C02,  N205,  etc., 
unite  with  water,  H20,  forming  a  class  of  compounds  known 
as  oxyacids.1    These  possess  in  a  marked  degree  acid  properties, 
combining  readily  with  bases  to  form  salts. 

46.  Oxides  which  thus  unite  with  water  to  form  oxyacids 
are  sometimes  called  acid  anhydrides,  or  simply  anhydrides. 

47.  The  oxyacids  are  designated  by  the  same  suffixes  as  the 
acid  oxides  which  form  them;  thus,   sulphurous  oxide   (S02) 
forms  sulphurous  acid,  and  sulphuric  oxide   (S03)  forms  sul- 
phuric acid,  etc.    This  may  be  represented  by  reactions  thus: 

1  See  Experiment  No.  5. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  13 

502  +     H20     =     H2S03 

Sulphurous  Water  Sulphurous 

oxide  acid 

503  +     H20     =     H2S04 

Sulphuric  Water  Sulphuric 

oxide  acid 

48.  The  salts  formed  from  acids  having  the  -ous  suffix  are 
designated  by  the  suffix  -ite.1    Thus,  salts  formed  from  sulphur- 
ous  acid  are  called  sulphites;  from  nitrous  acid,  nitrites,  etc. 

49.  The  salts  formed  from  acids  having  the  -ic  suffix  are 
designated  by  the  suffix  -ate?    Thus,  salts  formed  from  sul- 
phuric acid  are  called  sulphates;  from  nitric  acid,  nitrates;  from 
carbonic  acid,  carbonates,  etc. 

50.  There  is  another  class  of  acids  which  do  not  contain 
oxygen.     These   are  called  hydracids3    They  contain  only  hy- 
drogen   and    some    non-metal.      Such  acids  are   HC1,   called 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  H2S,  called  sulphydric  acid. 

51.  The  salts  formed  from  hydracids  take  names  according 
to  the  binary  rule;  4   salts  from  HC1  are  called  chlorides;  from 
sulphydric  acid,  sulphides. 

52.  Both  oxy acids  and  hydracids  contain  hydrogen,   and 
the  fundamental    characteristic    and  most  important  chemical 
property  of   these  acids  is  that  they  will  often  exchange  all  or 
a  portion  of  the  hydrogen  they  contain  for  a  metal,  whether  the 
metal  be  alone*  or  in  combination  with  other  elements,4  forming 
thereby  salts. 

53.  The  term  basicity  is  used  with  respect  to  acids  to  indi- 
cate the  number  of  hydrogen  atoms  which  are  replaceable  by 
a  metal  or  equivalent  in  chemical  union.    Thus,  H2S04  is  a 
bibasic  acid,  HC1  is  monobasic,  etc.,  since  in  the  former  two 
atoms  of  hydrogen  are  replaceable  by  a  metal  or  equivalent, 
and  in  the  latter  there  is  but  one  atom  to  be  so  replaced. 

54.  Some  of  the  common  acids  are  indicated  by  the  follow- 
ing names  and  formulas  of  their  molecules : 

1  See  Experiment  No.  10.  3  See  Experiment  No.  6. 

2  See  Experiment  No,  11.  4  See  Experiment  No.  7. 


14  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

MONOBASIC  ACIDS.  BIBASIC  ACIDS. 

Hydrochloric....  HC1  Sulphydric. . .  H2S 

Nitrous HN02        Sulphurous.  . .  H2S03 

Nitric HN03        Sulphuric.  . . .  H2S04 

Carbonic H2C03 

Hydric H20    (see  par.  58). 

55.  Acids   may   be  graded,   according   to  their   respective 
avidities,  with  respect  to  nitric  acid  as  a  standard.    The  term 
avidity  is  used  to  indicate  the  proportion  of  a  base  that  any 
given    acid  will    combine  with,   when   chemically   equivalent 
quantities 1  of  the  given  acid  and  nitric  acid  are  mixed  separately, 
with  a  solution  of  a  given  base.     Any  base  may  be  used.     The 
avidities  of  the  three  standard  acids  at  ordinary  temperatures 
have    been    established    as    follows:    HN03=1;    H2S04  =  0.5; 
HC1=1.     That  is,  in  solutions  of  equal  concentration  HC1  and 
HNOa  are  stronger  acids  than  H2S04.     But  if  heat  be  applied, 
the  greater  volatility  of  the  first  two  will  enable  H2S04  to  dis- 
place them  from  salts. 

56.  A  bibasic  acid  may  form  three  kinds  of  salts,  depending 
on  whether  all  of  the  hydrogen  or  a  portion  only  is  replaced, 
and  whether  one  or  two  metals  are  used.     These  salts  are  named 
as  follows: 

Acid  salt,  when  only  half  the  hydrogen  is  replaced.2 
Normal  salt,  when  all  of  the  hydrogen  is  replaced  and  by 

one  3  metal. 

Double  salt,  when  all  of  the  hydrogen  is  replaced  and  by  two 
metals. 

EXAMPLES. 


H2S04 

Sulphuric 
acid 

+         Na 

Sodium 

NaHS04+H2 

Acid  sodium 
sulphate 

H2S04 

Sulphuric 
acid 

+         Na2 

Twice  as 
much  sodium 

Na2S04    +H2 

Normal  sodium 
sulphate 

H2S04 

Sulphuric 
acid 

+     Na  +  K       = 

Sodium  and     t 
potassium 

NaKS04  +H2 

Double  sodium- 
potassium 
sulphate 

1  See  Par.  75.     2  See  (a),  Experiment  No. 10.     *  See  (6),  same  experiment. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  15 

57.  Compounds    containing    three    different    elements    are 
called  ternary  compounds;   e.g.,  H2S04;    those  containing  four 
different    elements    are    called    quaternary    compounds;     e.g., 
NaKS04;  etc. 

58.  The  principal  basic  substances  are  the  metallic  oxides  l 
and  another  group  of  substances  called  hydroxides.     Oxygen 
combines  with  hydrogen  in  two  proportions:    first,  one  atom 
of  oxygen  to  two  atoms  of  hydrogen,   forming  water;    and, 
secondly,  one  atom  of  oxygen  to  one  atom  of  hydrogen,  forming 
hydroxyl.    Water  exists  in  nature  as  a  stable  liquid;   hydroxyl 
does  not  exist  separately  in  nature,  only  in  combination  with 
some  metal  or  other  chemical  equivalent.     In  the  table  of  acids 
on  page  14  it  is  to  be  noted  that  water  is  classed  as  an  acid.     It 
comes  under  this  classification  only  in  that  it  has  the  property 
of  exchanging  its  hydrogen  for  certain  metals.     (It  is  neutral 
to  blue  litmus  and  has  no  other  characteristic  acid  property.) 
The  most  important  of  these  metals  in  a  chemical  sense  are 
potassium,  sodium,  lithium,  ccesium,  rubidium;  especially  the  first 
two.    These  act  on  water  directly  to  decompose  it,  displacing 
one  of  the  two  hydrogen  atoms,2  thus: 

2H20     +     K2     =     2KHO     +     H2 

Water  Metallic  Potassium  Free 

potassium  hydroxide  hydrogen 

The  oxides  of  these  metals  form  hydroxides,  as  follows: 
K20  +  H20=2KHO, 

without  giving  off  free  hydrogen. 

59.  Metallic  oxides  which   combine  with  water   to  form 
hydroxides  are  sometimes  called  basic  anhydrides. 

60.  The   rule   for  writing  and   naming  oxides   applies   to 

1  The  oxides  of  the  metals  as  a  rule  neutralize  acids,  forming  salts,  and 
behave  in  this  way  as  bases.    There  are  some  few  metallic  oxides  like  SnO.,  and 
Sb.,O5,  which  are  "anhydrides,"  forming  acids  with  water.     No  non-metallic 
oxide  is  known  to  have  basic  properties.     There  is  another  class  of  oxides,  both 
metallic  and  non-metallic,  which  are  neutral,  such  as  water  (H?O),  and  the 
black   oxide   of  manganese,  MnO2.     But  the  general  rule  is  that  metallic 
oxides  are  basic  and  non-metallic  oxides  are  acid. 

2  See  (a),  Experiment  No.  2. 


1 6  NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

hydroxides.  HO  is  written  after  the  metal  and  the  ending 
ide-  is  used;  thus,  KHO  is  potassium  hydroxide,  or  hydroxide 
of  potassium. 

61.  The  hydroxides  of  the  metals  named  in  paragraph   58 
constitute  a  group  of  the  strongest  bases  and  are  called  alkalies. 
One    other    hydroxide    is   included   in    the    alkalies,    namely, 
ammonium  hydroxide,  NH4(HO). 

62.  A  second  group  of  hydroxides,  formed  by  the  direct 
action  of  metals  or  their  oxides  on  water,1  are  those  known 
as  the  alkaline  earths.    These  are  the  hydroxides  of  calcium, 
Ca(HO)2,'   barium,  Ba(HO)2;   strontium,   Sr(HO)2;   and  mag- 
nesium, Mg(HO)2.    These  rank  next  to  the  alkalies  in  strength 
as  bases. 

63.  The    hydroxides    of   other   metals    cannot    be    formed 
directly  by  the  action  of  the  metals  or  their  oxides  on  water.2 
They  are  formed  by  combining  one  of  the  alkalies  or  alkaline 
earths  in  solution  with  a  solution  of  some  soluble  salt  of  the 
metal.     Thus,   zinc  hydroxide   may  be   formed  by  mixing  a 
solution  of  zinc  chloride  with  a  solution  of  potassium  hydroxide, 
the  reaction  being  represented  thus : 

ZnCl2     +    2KHO     =     Zn(HO)2    +    2KC1 

Zinc-  Potassium-  Zinc-  Potassium- 

chloride  hydroxide  hydroxide  chloride 

solution  solution  solid  solution 

64.  In  general  and  for  the  purposes  of  these  notes,  it  may 
therefore  be  said  that  substances  may  be  classified  chemically 
as  follows: 

f  Oxides  of  the  non-metals  (acid  oxides) . 
,    .,      I  Oxy acids  (union  of  acid  oxides  with  water). 

I  Hydracids   (union  of  hydrogen  with  certain  non- 

l     metals,  but  not  oxygen). 

r  Oxides  of  the  metals  (basic  oxides) . 
Bases.   \  Hydroxides   (union  of  basic  oxide  or  metal  with 

I     water) .  • 
Salts.       Neutral  substances  resulting  from  the  combination 

of  acids  and  bases. 

- 

1  See  (6),  Experiment  No.  2.  2  See  (c),  Experiment  No.  2. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  17 

Radicals. 

65.  It  has  been  stated  that  oxygen  may  be  considered  as 
existing  in  combination  with  hydrogen  in  chemical  substances 
in  the  proportion  of  one  atom  of  oxygen  to  one  atom  of  hydro- 
gen, HO,  and  that  the  name  hydroxyl  has  been  given  to  this 
particular  combination.     It  should  be  understood  here   that 
there  is  no  substance  in  nature   existing   separately,  having 
the  molecular  formula  HO.     The  oxides  of  hydrogen  which 
do  so   exist   are   H202   and   H20.     The    assumption    of   its 
existence    is    made  because,  in  the  chemical  changes  which 
take    place   in   the  formation  and  decomposition  of  the  class 
of    hydroxides    the     proportions     of    hydrogen    and    oxygen 
represented  by  HO  are  found  invariably  associated  together. 
Groups    of   atoms    which    are   found   thus    to   persist   together 
throughout   chemical    reactions    are    called    compound    radicals, 
or  often  simply  radicals.      (The    atoms    of  the  elements  are 
the  "  elementary  radicals")     Often   such   groups    are  written 
either    inclosed    in    parentheses    or    pointed    off    by  periods 
thus:    K.HO    or    K(HO);     Zn(HO)2;     Ca(HO)2.      There    are 
many  possible  groupings  of  atoms,  but  only  those  which  are 
found  to  exist  in  chemical  analysis  and  synthesis  are  legitimate 
radicals. 

66.  Compound  radicals  are  considered  to  have  valencies  the 
same  as  atoms  of  elements.     Hydroxyl,  for  example,  is  univalent 
and  will  combine  with  only  one  univalent  atom  or  another 
univalent  compound  radical.     Other  important  compound  radi- 
cals are : 

Amidogen NH2',  valency  1. 

Methyl CH3',  valency  1. 

Carbonyl CO",    valency  2. 

Nitroxyl  or  nitryl N02',  valency  1. 

Cyanogen CN',    valency  1. 

67.  Compound  radicals  have  basic  or  acid  properties  or 
are  neutral,  the  same  as  elementary  radicals.     Radicals  com- 
posed of  the  two  elements  carbon  and    hydrogen   only,  are 


1 8  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

usually  basic;  if  oxygen  is  also  present,  the  radical  is  usually 
acid. 

68.  Basic  radicals,  whether  compound  or  elementary,  are 
electropositive;  acid,  electronegative.1 

Graphic  Formulas. 

69.  The  valency  of  atoms  and  compound  molecules,  and 
the  manner  in  which  the  units  of  valency  in  any  molecule  are 
satisfied  or  grouped,  are  often  represented  graphically  by  join- 
ing together  the  symbols  with  small  lines,  each  line  representing 
a  unit  of  valency.    Thus,  for 

Hydrochloric  acid,  H'Cl',     we  may  write  H — Cl 
Water,  H2'0",     "     "       "     H— 0— H 

Ammonia,  H3'N'",   "     "       "     H-N-H 

H 
H 

Marsh-gas,  H4'C'V      "      "        "     H-C-H 

H 

The  manner  in  which  valency  is  satisfied  by  such  graphic 
formulas  may  be  understood  better,  perhaps,  by  imagining 
each  atom,  as  represented  by  its  symbol,  to  have  bonds  or 
hooks  extending  from  it,  and  each  bond  or  hook  having  capacity 
for  engaging  with  a  free  bond  or  hook  of  another  atom.  Sup- 
pose, for  example,  that  the  H's,  in  the  above  formulas,  are 
connected  with  the  other  bonds  or  hooks  as  indicated  by  the 
lines  between  the  letters. 

The  hooks  linking,  or  the  bonds  attaching  them  together, 
in  a  measure  represent  the  idea  involved  in  "  satisfying  "  units 
of  valency.  Such  formulas  are  called  graphic  or  structural  for- 
mulas. They  merely  indicate  how  valency  may  be  supposed  to 
be  satisfied  in  combinations.  They  do  not  represent  the  rela- 
tive positions  of  atoms  in  molecules. 

'This  fact  has  a  bearing  on  the  corpuscular  theory  of  matter  (see  note 
bottom  of  page  2) . 


PRINCIPLES   OF  CHEMISTRY.  19 

70.  When  all  the  units  of  valency  are  satisfied,  as  in  the 
groups  in  paragraph  69,  the  molecule  is  said  to  be  saturated. 

71.  Elements  whose  atoms  have  an  even  number  of  units  of 
valency  are  called  artiads;    those  whose  atoms  have  an  odd 
number  of  units  of  valency  are  called  perissads.     In  any  sat- 
urated molecule  the  sum  of  the  perissad  atoms  is  always  even. 
This  is  the  law  of  even  numbers. 

72.  An  unsaturated  molecule  is  one  having  one  or  more 
units  of  valency  unsatisfied.     The  compound  radicals  in  para- 
graph 66  are  unsaturated.     The  free  units  of  valency  and  the 
consequent   combining    power    of   these   radicals    respectively 
may  be  determined  by  writing  out  their  graphic  formulas,  thus: 

UNSATURATED.  SATURATED. 

N'"H2',    H — N — ,  one  free  unit;     H — N— H,  ammonia. 

i  A 

H  H 

I  I 

CIVH3',      H — C — ,  one  free  unit;     H — C — H,  marsh-gas. 

H  H 

CIV0",       0=C=,  two  free  units;  0=C— 0,  carbon  dioxide. 

N'"02,      0 — N — ,  one  free  unit;     0 — N — H,  nitrous  acid. 

\l  \l 

0  0 

CIVN'",  C — ,  one  free  unit;         C — H.  hydrocvanic  acid. 

Ill  III 

N  N 

73.  If  valency  be  a  definite  property  of  atoms,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  account  for  what  appear  to  be  variations  in  valency,  or 
variable  valency.     Thus,  it  is  known  that  chlorine  has  but  one 
unit  of  valency,  yet  tin  and  mercury  unite  in  two  proportions 
with  chlorine,  as  follows: 

1.  SnCl2 

2.  SnCl4 

3.  HgCl 

4.  HgCl2 


20  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

In  1,  Sn  has  a  valency  of  II;  in  2,  of  IV;  in  3,  Hg  has  a  valency 
of  I;  in  2,  of  II. 

The  question  arises,  How  can  such  variations  as  these  be 
reconciled  with  a  constant  atomic  property?  The  use  of 
graphic  formulas  may  assist  in  explaining  such  seeming  con- 
tradictions. 

If  the  graphic  formulas  of  the  compounds  referred  to  be 
written  as  follows,  all  units  of  valency  are  satisfied,  and  in  each 
case  there  is  the  proper  proportion  by  weight  and  constant  val- 
ency for  each  atom.  For  SnCl2  we  may  write  Sn2Cl4  or  (SnCl2)2, 
preserving  the  proportions  by  weight;  that  is,  consider  two 
molecules  instead  of  one  molecule  to  be  involved  in  the  condition 
of  saturation.  The  graphic  formula  for  this  condition  would 
be,  assuming  Sn  to  have  a  valency  of  IV,  the  highest : 

Cl— Sn— Cl 

II 
Cl— Sn— Cl 

and  for  SnCl4  the  graphic  formula  would  be 

Cl 

Cl— Sn— Cl 

I 
Cl 

For  HgCl  we  may  write  Hg2Cl2  or  (HgCl)2,  and  the  graphic 
formula  of  this  is,  assuming  Hg  to  have  valency  of  II,  the 
highest: 

Cl— Hg— Hg— Cl. 

Again,  for  HgCl2,  valency  still  II: 

Cl— Hg— Cl. 

Other  cases  of  seeming  variable  valency  may  be  similarly 
explained  by  considering  the  proper  grouping  of  molecules. 

The  series  of  the  nitrogen  oxides  may  be  represented 
by  the  following  graphic  formulas,  taking  valency  of  nitro- 
gen III: 


PRINCIPLES   OF  CHEMISTRY.  21 

0 

N20  = 


N203=  0=N— N/l 

°\         y° 

N02=N204=  |   >N-N/   | 

<X     NO 

°\        /° 

N205=  |  >N-0-N<  | 

(X  X0 

74.  If  variable  valencies  may  be  thus  explained,  the  original 
definition  of  valency  may  be  adhered  to,  namely,  it  is  the  great- 
est number  of  univalent  atoms  an  atom  will  combine  with.1 

75.  The  equivalent  weight'  of  any  element  (or  compound) 
is  that  weight  of  it  which  combines  with,  is  substituted  for,  or 
otherwise  is  chemically  equivalent  to,  one  part  by  weight  of 
hydrogen.     Thus: 

H— N— H, 

H 

In  ammonia  (NH3)  the  equivalent  weight  of  nitrogen  is  \  of 
the  atomic  weight  of  nitrogen,  since  it  combines  with  3  atoms 
of  hydrogen;  that  is,  its  equivalent  weight  is  V~=4.67.  In 
H20  the  equivalent  weight  of  oxygen  is  -l-f-=8. 

The  equivalent  weight  of  NH4  is  18,  since  18  parts  displace 
1  part  of  H  in  HC1,  giving  NH4CL 

76.  Accepting  these  definitions,  the  valency  of  any  element  is 
equal  to  its  atomic  weight  divided  by  its  equivalent  weight. 

Organic  and  Inorganic  Chemistry. 

77.  Substances   which   result   from   the   operation   of   life 
functions,  either  animal  or  vegetable,  are  called  organic  sub- 

1  The  model  atoms  displayed  by  Professor  J.  J.  Thomson  in  his  lectures 
on  the  corpuscular  theory  of  matter  appear  to  support  this  conclusion. 


22  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

stances,  and  that  portion  of  chemistry  which  treats  of  them 
is  called  organic  chemistry.  Substances  obtained  as  minerals 
from  the  earth  and  which  are  not  directly  the  result  of  life 
are  called  inorganic  substances,  and  that  portion  of  chemistry 
which  treats  of  them  is  called  inorganic  chemistry. 

Objects  of  Chemistry. 

78.  The  objects  of  chemistry  may  be  enumerated  as  follows  : 

(1)  To  study  the  properties  of  a  substance  so  as  to  be  able 
to  identify  it  with  certainty  under  whatever  conditions  it  may 
be  met  with,    i 

(2)  To  ascertain  a  method  of  producing  it  at  pleasure. 

(3)  To  determine  its  precise  composition  by  weight  and 
volume. 

(4)  To  investigate  its  action  with  other  substances  and  the 
phenomena  associated  therewith. 

Physical  and  Chemical  Phenomena. 

79.  In  studying  the  properties  of  substances  it  is  important 
to  distinguish  between  physical  properties,  changes,  and  effects 
and  chemical  properties,  changes,  and  effects.    All  mass  effects, 
outside  the  limits  of  molecules  and  between  molecules,  which 
do  not  affect  the  integrity  of  any  of  the  molecules  of  the  mass, 
pertain  to  physical  phenomena.     All  effects  within  the  limits 
of  molecules  and  between  the  atoms  of  different  molecules, 
which  accomplish  disintegration  of  molecules  and  the  rearrange- 
ment of  atoms  as  constituents  of  new  molecules,  pertain  to 
chemical  phenomena. 

Thus  the  physical  properties  of  a  substance  include  the  state 
of  aggregation  of  its  molecules,  as  gas,  liquid,  or  solid;  its 
color,  odor,  taste,  hardness,  specific  gravity,  form  of  crystal, 
fusing-point,  and  boiling-point. 

The  chemical  properties  of  a  substance  include  its  classifica- 
tion as  an  acid,  a  base,  or  a  salt;  the  action  of  acids,  bases,  or 
salts  with  it;  its  composition. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  23 

Mixtures,  Solutions,  Alloys,  Amalgams. 

80.  In  addition  to  the  elementary  substances  and  the  homo- 
geneous compounds  there  are  other  aggregations  of  matter  which 
may  be  classified  as  mechanical  mixtures,  solutions,  alloys,  and 
amalgams. 

81.  A  mechanical  mixture  consists  of  two  or  more  substances 
mixed  together  in  any  proportions.     It  differs  essentially  from  a 
chemical  compound  in  that  the  proportions  of  the  constituents 
of  the  latter  are  always  the  same  by  weight.     Each  constituent 
of  a  mechanical  mixture  always  retains  its  own  distinguishing 
physical  properties,  whereas  in  a  true  compound  the.  character- 
istic physical  properties  of  the  separate  constituents  disappear. 
Granite  is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica; 
these  ingredients  may  vary  throughout  all  possible  proportions, 
and  although  the  physical  properties  of  the  separate  constituents 
remain  the  same,  those  of  the  conglomerated  mass  vary  to  cor- 
respond to  the  varying  proportions  of  the  constituents;    it  is 
nevertheless  always  granite.   Marble,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  chemi- 
cal compound,  and  the  proportion  by  weight  of  calcium,  carbon 
and  oxygen  is  always  the  same;   the  physical  properties  of  the 
mass  are  always  the  same,  but  the  physical  properties  of  the 
constituents  have  completely  disappeared.     Among  explosives, 
black  and  brown  powders  are  mechanical  mixtures  of  potassium 
nitrate,  carbon,  and  sulphur;  guncotton  is  a  chemical  compound, 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen. 

82.  A  solid,  liquid,  or  gas  may  be  in  solution  in  a  given 
liquid;  the  latter  is  called  the  solvent.     In  passing  into  solution 
the  solid  liquefies  and  mixes  with  the  solvent;  the  liquid  mixes 
directly,  and,  when  a  homogeneous  solution  obtains,  the  two 
liquids  are  said  to  be  mixable  or  miscible;  gases  are  absorbed, 
so  to  speak,  into  the  body  of  the  solvent,  the  amount  of  gas 
passing  into  solution  being  directly  proportional  to  its  pressure 
on  the  surface  of  the  solvent  and  inversely  proportional  to  the 
temperature  of  the  solvent.     Usually  the  quantity  of  a  solid 
that  will  dissolve  increases  with  the  temperature  of  the  solvent. 


24  NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Simple  solution  appears  often  to  be  a  quasi  chemical  as  well 
as  physical  phenomenon,  though  there  is  usually  a  reduction 
of  temperature  due  to  the  physical  change  of  the  solid  to  liquid 
state.  In  chemical  solution  there  is  chemical  combination. 

83.  A  solvent  will  usually  take  up  only  a  limited  quantity  of 
a  soluble  substance;    when  this  quantity  has  been  taken  up 
further  addition  only  causes  an  accumulation  in  the  liquid  of 
the  solid  in  the  solid  state.    At  this  stage  the  solvent  is  said 
to  be  saturated  and  the  solution  is  called  a  saturated  solution. 
Fractional  solutions  may  be  made  in  the  percentage  quantities 
required  from  a  saturated  solution.    A  saturated  solution  is 
sometimes  improperly  called  a  normal  solution.     A  normal  solu- 
tion is  one  in  which  each  litre  contains  the  number  of  grams 
of  the  substance  equal  to  its  molecular  weight.     A  standard 
solution  is  such  that  each  litre  contains  a  known  and  definite 
amount  of  the  substance.    There  may  be  an  infinite  number 
of  standard  solutions  of  a  substance. 

84.  Proximity  of  molecules  favors  chemical   action.     The 
form  of  solution  is  particularly  favorable,  both  for  the  reason 
that  the  molecules  are  closer  together  than  in  the  gaseous  state, 
and  the  action  of  affinity  is  not  interfered  with  by  the  force  of 
cohesion  which  acts  between   the  molecules  of  substances  in 
the  solid  form. 

85.  Alloys  partake  of  the  nature  of  solidified  solutions  of 
two  or  more  metals  mixed  together  in  the  molten  state.    The 
consti tents  may  vary  in  any  proportion. 

86.  An  amalgam  is  a  union  of  a  metal  with  mercury.     Iron 
is  the  only  metal  in  common  use  which  does  not  form  amalgams 
readily  with  mercury.     Amalgams   approach  more  nearly  to 
compounds  than  alloys  or  solutions. 

87.  The  single  molecule  is  invisible.     In  order  that  matter 
become  visible  the  molecules  must  be  brought  to  within  cer- 
tain limits  of  nearness  to  each  other.     In  the  state  of  gas  the 
molecules  are  not  sufficiently  close  to  each  other  to  produce 
visibility.     The  passage  from  visibility  to  invisibility  is  well 
illustrated  in  the  disappearance  of  condensed  steam  escaping 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  25 

from  an  engine.     The  proximity  of  molecules  in  the  liquid  and 
solid  states  causes  visibility. 

88.  The  passage  from  a  liquid  or  solid  state  to  gaseous  is 
called  evaporation,  or  vaporization.     Water  evaporates  whether 
in  the  liquid  or  solid  form  (ice   or  snow).      Camphor  and  a 
few  other  solids  vaporize  directly,  like  ice;     notably  (NH^Cl 
andS. 

89.  The  passage  from  the  solid  state  to  liquid  by  the  appli- 
cation of  heat  is  fusion,  and  the  temperature  at  which  the 
change  of  state  takes  place  is  the  fusing-point.     If  the  tem- 
perature  be   raised  from   the  fusing-point   until  vaporization 
begins  in  the  interior  of  the  liquid  as  well  as  on  the  surface,  the 
latter  temperature  is  the  boiling-point.     As  a  rule,  fusible  sub- 
stances have  definite,  characteristic  fusing-  and  boiling-points. 

90.  The  change  of  state  from  vapor  to  liquid  or  vapor  to 
solid  is  condensation.     The  cycle  of  change  from  solid  or  liquid 
to  vapor  back  to  liquid  is  distillation;  from  solid  to  vapor  back 
to  solid,  sublimation. 

91.  When  a  solid  absorbs  moisture  directly  from  the  air  at 
ordinary  temperatures  and  combines  therewith  to  form  a  liquid, 
the  phenomenon  is  called  deliquescence. 

92.  Change  of  state  from  solid  to  liquid,  solid  to  vapor,  or 
liquid  to  vapor  causes  a  disappearance  of  heat;   that  is,  there 
is  a  lowering  of  temperature.    The  reverse  series  of    changes 
cause  a  corresponding  and  equal  development  of  heat — eleva- 
tion of  temperature. 

93.  As  a  rule  chemical  actions  resulting  in  the  building  up 
of  compound  molecules  from  elementary  molecules,  or  which 
increase  the  complexity  of  the  molecules  (synthetical  reactions), 
involve  evolution  of  heat.     Reactions  resulting  in  a  separation 
of  the  constituents  into  elements  or  simpler  molecules  involve, 
as  a  rule,  disappearance  of  heat.    In  any  particular  case  pre- 
cisely the  number  of  heat-units  made  evident  in  synthesis  are 
made  latent  or  disappear  in  analysis. 

94.  There  are  certain  exceptions  to  the  rule  given  in  the 
last  paragraph.     There  are  some  molecules,  like  nitrous  oxide, 


26  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

N20,  and  potassium  chlorate,  KC103,  and  fulminate  of  mer- 
cury, Hg02C2N2,  which  absorb  heat  in  formation  and  give  off 
heat  in  disintegration.  This  property  has  an  important  bearing 
in  explosives.  Such  molecules  are  said  to  be  endothermic. 
Molecules  which  give  off  heat  in  formation  and  absorb  heat  in 
disintegration,  according  to  the  usual  rule,  are  said  to  be  exo- 
thermic. 

95.  The  number  of  heat-units  involved  in  the  synthesis  of 
a  molecule  is  to  some  extent  a  measure  of  the  stability  of  the 
compound.     It  will  require  an  equal  quantity  of  heat  or  some 
form  of  equivalent  energy  to  disrupt  the  bonds  forged  in  the 
heat  of  chemical  union.     Water,  for  example,  is  one  of  the 
more  stable  molecules,  and  the  heat  given  off  by  H2,  com- 
bining with  0  to  form  water  (H20),   (that  is,  the  burning  of 
hydrogen  in  oxygen)  amounts  to  68,400  units;  [that  is,  2  grams 
of  hydrogen  combining  with  its  equivalent  weight  (16  grams) 
of  oxygen  will  give  off  enough  heat  to  raise  68,400  grams  of 
water  1°  C. 

96.  The  effect  of  high  temperature  on  complex  molecules 
is  to  weaken  the  molecular  bonds  and  to  favor  disruption  and 
a  rearrangement  of  the  atoms  in  new  molecules  depending  on 
the  kind  of  atoms  within  the  scope  of  chemical  union  and  their 
relative  affinities  for  each  other  under  the  existing  conditions. 
Heat  also  weakens  the  cohesive  bonds  between  molecules,  as 
stated  above  in  connection  with  changes  of  physical  states  of 
matter. 

97.  The  molecular  bonds  may  be  so  weakened  by  the  appli- 
cation of  heat  that  the  constituents  part  company.    The  phe- 
nomenon which  includes  the  separation  of  the  constituents  of 
a  compound  under  the  influence  of  heat  and  their  recombina- 
tion as  the  temperature  falls,  by  operation  of  the  original  chemical 
affinities  which  have  not  at  any  time  been  diverted  into  other 
relations,  is  called  dissociation.    The  molecules  of  elements  are 
sometimes  dissociated. 

98.  When  the  constituents  of  a  molecule  are  separated  and 
do  not  reunite  after  the  disturbing  cause  has  ceased  to  operate, 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  27 

having  taken   up  new  relations,   the  phenomenon  is  termed 
decomposition. 

Fundamental  Laws. 

99.  There  are  three  laws  of  special  importance  in  chemical 
science;  these  are: 

1.  The  Law  of  Fixed  Proportions. 

2.  The  Law  of  Multiples. 

3.  The  Law  of  Avogadro. 

100.  The  Law  of  Fixed  Proportions  is,  that  a  chemical  com- 
pound always  contains  the  same  elements  in  the  same  propor- 
tion by  weight.      For  example,  pure  water  contains   oxygen 
and  hydrogen   and  only   these   two  elements,   and  they  are 
always  associated  in  the  proportion  of  1.111  parts  by  weight  of 
hydrogen  to  8.889  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen  in  every  10  parts 
by  weight  of  pure  water. 

1 01.  The  Law  of  Multiples  is,  that  when  two  elements  unite 
in  more  than  one  proportion  the  weights  of  one  which  combine 
with  the  fixed  Weight  of  the  other  bear  to  each  other  a  ratio 
that  may  be  expressed  by  simple  whole  numbers.     Thus  nitrogen 
combines  with  oxygen  to  form  five  separate  compounds,  and  the 
weight  of  oxygen  entering  this  series  increases  by  multiples  of 
the  smallest  weight  when  a  fixed  weight  of  nitrogen  is  taken  in 
each  compound.     If  we  say  that  the  weight  of  nitrogen  shall 
be  28  pounds  in  each  compound,  then  the  weight  of  oxygen  in 
the  first  of  the  series  would  be  16  pounds,  and  it  would  increase 
by  16  pounds  for  each  of  the  subsequent  compounds  of  the 
series,  as  follows : 

1.  Nitrogen,  28  Ibs. ;  oxygen,  16  Ibs. 

2.  "  "  "  "  32   "  =2X16. 

3.  "  "  "  "  48   "  =3X16. 

4.  "  "  "  "  64   "  =4X16. 

5.  "  "  "  "  80   "  =5X16. 


28  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

102.  The  Law  of  Avogadro  may  be  stated  as  follows : 

All  gases  under  the  same  conditions  of  pressure  and  tem- 
perature have  the  same  number  of  molecules  in  equal  volumes. 
That  is,  a  cubic  foot  of  hydrogen  will  have  the  same  number 
of  molecules  as  a  cubic  foot  of  oxygen,  or  a  cubic  foot  of  the 
vapor  of  water,  or  of  the  vapor  of  alcohol,  or  of  any  other  gas; 
provided  all  of  these  are  at  the  same  temperature  and  sub- 
jected to  the  same  pressure. 

The  law  may  also  be  stated  as  follows:  The  same  number 
of  molecules  of  all  gases  occupy  equal  volumes  under  the  same 
pressures  and  temperatures.  This  law  being  true  of  any  number 
of  molecules  is  true  of  one.  If,  therefore,  we  consider  the  law 
as  applying  to  the  volumes  occupied  by  single  motecules,  it 
is  evident  that  the  volumes  of  all  single  molecules  are  equal. 
That  is,  the  space  occupied  by  a  single  molecule  of  hydrogen 
is  equal  to  that  occupied  by  a  single  molecule  of  oxygen,  or 
a  molecule  of  water,  or  a  molecule  of  alcohol.  The  volumes  of 
all  single  molecules  therefore  are  equal  whether  they  be  ele- 
mentary or  compound. 

103.  It  has  been  ascertained  by  experiment  that  the  mole- 
cules of  most  of  the  elements  contain  two  atoms.     Some  of  the 
exceptions  to  this  are  the  following: 

Cadmium  i 

Mercury      !•  have  but  one  atom  in  a  molecule. 

Zinc 

Phosporus  1 

Arsenic 


r.  "      (•  have  four  atoms  in  a  molecule, 
tic       J 


For  purposes  of  discussion  the  conditions  existing  among 
diatomic  elements  only  will  first  be  considered. 

104.  The  hydrogen  molecule  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of 
diatomic  molecules.  The  space  occupied  by  the  molecule,  that 
is  the  molecular  volume,  may  reasonably  be  assumed  to  be 
equally  divided  between  or  occupied  by  the  two  hydrogen  atoms. 
The  space  occupied  by  one  hydrogen  atom,  that  is  half  the 
volume  of  the  hydrogen  molecule,  may  be  taken  as  the  unit  of 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  29 

volumes;  that  is,  the  ultimate  standard  volume  for  comparing 
specific  gravities  is  half  the  volume  of  the  hydrogen  molecule, 
or  the  space  occupied  by  the  hydrogen  atom.  The  expression, 
"  space  occupied  by  the  hydrogen  atom/7  is  used  for  the  reason 
that  the  atom  is  supposed  not  to  occupy  solidly  the  limits  of 
the  half-molecule;  that  is,  while  it  occupies  the  space  of  the 
half -molecule,  it  does  not  fill  it.  Calling  such  space  the  atomic 
space,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  true  volume  of  the  atom,  the 
standard  volume  may  be  considered  the  atomic  space  of  the  hydrogen 
atom. 

105.  Since  the  volumes  of  all  molecules  are  equal,  it  may  be 
assumed  that  the  atomic  spaces  of  all  diatomic  elements  are  equal. 
That  is,  the  space  occupied  by  any  atom  of  a  diatomic  element 
occupies  a  space  equal  to  that  occupied  by  the  hydrogen  atom, 
and  the  weights  of  atoms  of  diatomic  elements  are  the  weights 
of  equal  volumes.     Keeping  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  atomic 
weight  of  hydrogen  is  unity  and  that  the  atomic  weights  of 
other  elements  are  expressed  in  terms  of  this  unit,  it  is  evident 
that  the  atomic  weights  of  diatomic  elements  express  the  rela- 
tive weights  of  equal  volumes,  and  if  hydrogen  be  taken  as  the 
standard  of  specific  gravity  for  gases,  the  atomic  weights  of 
diatomic  elements  are  the  specific  gravities  of  these  elements  in 
gaseous  state  referred  to  hydrogen  as  a  standard.     For  example, 
the  specific  gravity  of  oxygen  referred  to  hydrogen  is  16,  of 
nitrogen  14,  etc.,  the  same  as  their  atomic  weights. 

1 06.  For  elements  whose  molecule  contain  but  one  atom, 
that  is  monatomic  elements,  the  atomic  weight  represents  the 
matter  occupying  two  " standard  volumes"  (atomic  space  of 
hydrogen  atom).    The  weight  of  the  matter  corresponding  to 
one  standard  volume  would  therefore  be  one-half  the  atomic 
weight.     That  is,  the  specific  gravities  of  monatomic  elements 
in  the  gaseous  state  are  one-half  their  atomic  weights;   e.g., 

198.5  (at.  wt.) 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  vapor  of  mercury  is  -      — x — 

99.25. 

107.  For  elements  whose  atoms  occupy  one-half  the  stand- 


30  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

ard  volume,  or  have  four  atoms  to  the  molecule,  that  is  tetra- 
tomic  elements,  the  atomic  weight  is  the  weight  of  matter  in 
a  half- volume;  therefore,  to  get  the  weight  of  a  whole  volume, 
the  atomic  weight  must  be  multiplied  by  two.  That  is,  the 
specific  gravities  of  tetratomic  elements  are  obtained  by  mul- 
tiplying atomic  weight  by  two.  Thus  the  atomic  weight  of 
phosphorus  is  30.7;  its  specific  gravity  in  gaseous  state  is 
30.7X2  =  61.4. 

108.  A  compound  gas,  like  marsh-gas  (CH4)  or  acetylene 
(C2H2),  or  a  compound  vapor  like    water  (H20)   or  alcohol 
(C2H60),  has  as  its  smallest  volume  the  molecular  volume, 
because  by  definition  the  molecule  is  the  smallest  quantity  that 
possesses  all  and  only  the  properties  of  the  substance.     Hence  the 
specific  gravities  of  all  compound  gases  are  based  on  the  weight  of 
matter  in  a  molecular  volume,  which  is  twice  the  standard  vol- 
ume.    Therefore  the  specific  gravity  of  all  compound  gases  is  ob- 
tained by  dividing  the  weight  of  the  molecule  by  two.    The  specific 

12  +  4 
gravity  of  marsh-gas  (CH4)  is  — ^—  =8;  of  water- vapor  (H20) 

2  +  16                                      /n  TJ  ™  •   24  +  6  +  16 
is  — 2~  =9;  of  alcohol-vapor  (C2H60)  is ~ —   -  =  23,  etc. 

109.  A  very  important  principle  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
the  volumes  of  all  molecules  are  equal.     It  is  this:    Whatever 
number  of  elementary   or  compound  gases   combine  chemically 
to  form  a  single  compound  gas,  the  latter  will  occupy  but  two  vol- 
umes.     Let  the  reaction  for  the  formation  of  water  be  taken 
as  follows : 

H2  +  0  =  H20. 

From  paragraph  104  each  symbol  of  an  atom  of  a  diatomic 
element  represents  a  standard  volume,  provided  the  symbols 
stand  alone,  as  in  the  first  member  of  this  equation.  That  is, 
in  the  first  member  of  this  equation  there  are  two  standard 
volumes  of  hydrogen  represented,  and  one  standard  volume  of 
oxygen,  or  three  standard  volumes  altogether.  When  cjiemical 
union  takes  place  forming  the  molecule,  water,  but  one  mole- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  31 

cule  is  formed,  and  it  cannot  occupy  more  than  two  standard 
volumes. 

Again,  one  volume  of  nitrogen  combines  with  three  volumes 
of  hydrogen  to  form  two  volumes  of  ammonia,  thus: 

N     +     H3     =     NH3 

1  vol.  3  vols.  2  vols. 

This  fact,  which  is  based  upon  the  truth  of  Avogadro's  law 
and  is  confirmed  by  experiment,  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  the 
principle  or  law  of  gaseous  condensation. 

1 10.  The  examples  in  paragraph  109  contemplate  strictly 
theoretical  standard  volumes,  that  is  the  spaces  occupied  by 
single  atoms;  but  of  course  such  spaces  cannot  be  dealt  with 
in  practical  work.  However,  it  is  axiomatic  that  what  is  true 
of  these  theoretical  volumes  will  be  equally  true  of  any  multiple 
of  the  volumes,  and  it  follows  that  the  practical  standard  volume 
may  be  assumed  as  one  cubic  foot,  or  one  thousand  cubic  feet, 
or  one  litre,  or  multiple  or  fraction  thereof,  and  the  first  reac- 
tion of  the  last  paragraph  might  just  as  truly  have  been  stated 
thus: 

H2     +     0     =     H20 

2  cu.  ft.  1  cu.  ft.  2  cu.  ft. 

and  the  second  reaction,  thus : 

N     +     H3     =     NH3 

1  cu.  ft.         3  cu.  ft.  2  cu.  ft. 


Determination  of  Atomic  Weights. 

in.  In  paragraph  3  it  is  stated  that  the  atom  is  the  ultimate 
unit  of  matter  so  far  as  known.  It  is  convenient  here  to  explain 
how  these  smallest  known  quantities  of  matter  have  been 
ascertained.  For  this  purpose  the  elements  may  be  divided 
into,  first,  those  which  may  be  volatilized  and  dealt  with  in  the 
form  of  gas  or  vapor,  and,  secondly,  those  which  cannot  con- 
veniently be  so  experimented  with. 


32  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

ii2.  The  determination  of  the  atomic  weights  of  gaseous 
elements  is  based  on  the  principles  of  the  Law  of  Avogadro 
and  chemical  analysis. 

Let  it  be  assumed  that  the  atomic  weight  of  hydrogen  is 
desired. 

All  possible  gaseous  compounds  in  which  hydrogen  enters 
as  a  constituent  are  collected. 

(1)  According  to  Avogadro's  Law  and  the  deductions  there- 
from the  molecular  weights  are  the  weights  of  equal  vol- 
umes (all  molecular  volumes  being  equal).  But  the  standard 
theoretical  volume  is  the  half-molecular  volume.  That  is,  the 
molecular  weights  are  the  weights  of  double  the  standard  vol- 
ume, or,  in  other  words,  twice  the  specific  gravities  of  gases, 
hydrogen  being  taken  as  the  standard  for  specific  gravity.  If, 
therefore,  equal  volumes  of  hydrogen  and  all  its  compound 
gases  be  weighed  under  the  same  conditions  of  temperature 
and  pressure,  and  the  resulting  weights  of  the  compound  gases. 
expresseU  in  terms  of  the  weight  of  the  volume  of  hydrogen  as 
unity,  be  multiplied  by  two,  the  products  will  be  the  molecular 
weights l  in  terms  of  the  weight l  of  the  hydrogen  atom. 

For  example,  it  is  known  that  water  contains  hydrogen; 
if  a  cubic  foot  of  water-vapor  be  weighed,  it  will  be  found  to 
weigh  9  times  more  than  an  equal  volume  of  hydrogen  under 
the  same  pressure  and  at  the  same  temperature.  Multiplying 
9  by  2,  the  product  18  is  the  weight  of  the  water-molecule; 
that  is,  the  water-molecule  weighs  18  times  more  than  the 
weight  of  hydrogen  which  occupies  the  atomic  space. 

1  The  word  weights  has  been  used  throughout,  but  it  should  be  kept  in 
mind  that  quantity  of  matter,  mass,  is  the  exact  idea  that  should  be  carried 
along. 

weight  in  pounds  w 

In  any  case  mass  = ; —. j-3- — r- ——. : ,  or  m—— .     To 

acceleration  due  to  gravity  at  the  place  g 

be  correct,  we  should  speak  of  atomic  masses  and  not  atomic  weights.  The 
masses  are  constant,  the  weights  vary  with  the  force  of  gravity  at  differ- 
ent latitudes.  Atomic  weights  are  expressions  for  the  relative  weights  of 
atoms,  hydrogen  being  unity.  The  weights  of  all  atoms  vary  with  the  lati- 
tude, but  as  they  all  vary  according  to  the  same  law,  their  relative  weights 
are  as  constant  as  the  masses  themselves.  Therefore  no  numerical  error  is 
introduced  by  using  atomic  weights  instead  of  atomic  masses. 


PRINCIPLES   OF  CHEMISTRY.  33 

(2)  By  chemical  analysis  the  constituents  in  each  one  of  the 
compounds  may  be  separated,  and  the  proportion  by  weight 
of  hydrogen  which  enters  each  sample   can  be  found.     For 
example,  suppose  that  the  sample  of  water  was  10  pounds. 
By  chemical  analysis  it  can  be  accurately  determined  that 
1.111  pounds   of  this   was  hydrogen   gas   and   8.889   pounds 

was   oxygen  gas.     Or,  —  '          by  weight  of  water  consists  of 

hydrogen. 

(3)  It  was  ascertained  in  (1),  above,  that  the  molecular 
weight  of  water  is  18,  in  terms  of  the  weight  of  the  hydrogen 

atom.     But  it  now  appears  that  —  '          of  any  mass  of  water 

is  hydrogen,  whether  it  be  a  ton  or  a  molecule.    Hence  —  '  n  • 

1UU 

of  18  will  be  the  proportional  part  of  hydrogen  in  the  water- 
molecule,  expressed  in  terms  of  the  weight  of  the  hydrogen 
atom,  or  .1111x18  =  1.999  +  ,  that  is  2,  and  the  hydrogen  in 
the  water-molecule  is  represented  by  H2. 

(4)  Any  of  the  compounds  of  hydrogen  may  be  dealt  with 
as  explained  for  water.     Take  hydrochloric  acid,  for  example. 
Its  vapor  weighs  18.25  times  more  than  equal  volumes  of  hydro- 
gen, hence,  from  (1),  its  molecular  weight  is  36.5.     It  may  be 
ascertained  by  chemical  analysis  that  in  every  part  by  weight 

2.74 

of  hydrochloric  acid  there  are  ~r^  parts  by  weight  of  hydrogen. 


This  is  as  true  of  a  single  molecule  as  of  any  larger  quantity. 
Hence  of  the  36.5  units  of  the  molecular  weight  36.5  X.  0274 
=  .999  +  of  them  are  units  of  hydrogen,  that  is  1  atom  of  hydro- 
gen, and  the  quantity  of  hydrogen  in  the  molecule  of  hydrochloric 
acid  is  therefore  represented  by  H. 

(5)  All  other  compounds  of  hydrogen  may  be  treated  in  the 
same  way,  and  the  smallest  quantity  of  hydrogen  in  terms  of 
the  weight  of  the  half-hydrogen  molecule  may  be  ascertained. 

The  data  resulting  from  such  a  series  of  experiments  may 
be  tabulated  as  follows  : 


34 


NOTES  CW  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


o 

JZ£ 

|| 

'gj 

Hydrogen  Compounds. 

ill 

!l 

||| 

1 

«.2 

.2^.2 

c  *** 

'£  ^>-- 

| 

>> 

CQ 

* 

" 

^ 

02 

Water-vapor  

9.0 

18.0 

1111  =  — 

2 

H2O 

18 

Hydrochloric  acid  

18.25 

36.5 

.0274  =  3^ 

1 

HC1 

Hydrobromic  acid  

40.5 

81.0 

.0123=1 

1 

HBr 

Sulphydric  acid 

17.0 

34.0 

0588  =  — 

o 

SH2 

34 

^ 

Ammonia 

8.5 

17.0 

1765  =  — 

3 

NH3 

17 

Phosphorus  trihydride  .  .  . 

17.0 

34.0 

.0882  =  1 

3 

PH3 

Marsh-gas              .    .    . 

8.0 

16.0 

25     =  — 

4 

CH4 

16 

Olefiant  gas  .       

14.0 

28.0 

142    =  — 

4 

C,Hd 

28 

24 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

If,  in  any  case,  a  value  less  than  unity  were  obtained  for 
this  smallest  quantity,  say  i,  that  would  be  taken  as  the  standard 
atomic  weight  instead  of  the  one  now  assumed;  if  this  were 
made  equal  to  unity,  it  would  necessitate  doubling  all  existing 
atomic  weights.  But  no  weight  of  hydrogen  less  than  the 
weight  of  the  half-hydrogen  molecule  has  ever  been  separated 
by  any  procedure  or  reasoning.  The  hydrogen  atom  is,  there- 
fore, to  be  understood  to  be  the  smallest  quantity  of  hydrogen 
that  is  now  known  to  exist. 

(6)  All  of  the  compounds  of  any  other  gaseous  element  may 
be  analyzed  chemically  and  experimented  with  physically  in 
the  same  manner,  and  the  smallest  weight  of  that  element  which 
is  found  in  any  compound  is  taken  as  its  atomic  weight. 

113.  The  atomic  weights  of  some  of  the  solid  elements  have 
been  determined  by  a  comparative  study  of  the  specific  heats  2 

1  The  weight  of  the  half-hydrogen  molecule  is  often  called  a  microcrith. 

2  The  specific  heat  of  a  body  at  any  temperature  is  the  ratio  of  the  quan- 
tity of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  body  one  degree  to  the 
quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  an  equal  weight  of  water  at  its  temperature 
of  maximum  density  (4°  C.,  39.2°  F.)  through  one  degree.     The  unit  of  heat 
is  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  unit  weight 
of  water  one  degree.     Depending  on  the  weight  units  involved  and  the  tern- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  35 

of  the  elements  in  the  solid  state  and  a  comparison  of  these 
specific  heats  with  known  atomic  weights. 

Two  investigators,  Petit  and  Dulong,  developed  the  fact 
that  the  specific  heats  of  the  solid  elements  are  nearly  inversely 
proportional  to  their  atomic  weights.  That  is,  the  quantity  of 
heat  required  to  raise  weights  proportional  to  atomic  weights 
through  one  degree  is  practically  constant  and  approximately 
equal  to  6.4  units  of  heat.  This  number  is  called  the  atomic 
heat.  If,  therefore,  the  specific  heat  of  a  solid  element  be 
determined,  and  the  atomic  heat,  6.4,  be  divided  by  the  specific 
heat,  the  quotient  will  be  approximately  the  atomic  weight. 

Used  in  conjunction  with  chemical  analysis,  the  principle 
of  atomic  heat  will  give  sufficiently  reliable  results.  For  ex- 
ample, by  analyzing  silver  chloride  chemically  it  is  found  that 
108  parts  by  weight  of  silver  and  35.5  parts  of  chlorine  are 
obtained.  If  there  be  two  atoms  of  silver  in  this  compound 
its  atomic  weight  is  54;  if  three  atoms,  36;  if  four,  27;  if  one, 
108.  The  specific  heat  of  silver  at  ordinary  temperature  is  .057; 
the  quotient,  112,  obtained  by  dividing  6.4  by  .057,  suggests  that 
the  number  108  should  be  taken  as  the  true  atomic  weight, 
instead  of  54,  36,  or  27.  Chemical  analysis  is  a  more  exact 
process  than  the  determination  of  specific  heat,  therefore  the 
number  108  is  taken  in  preference  to  112. 

114.  The  number  of  atoms  in  an  elementary  molecule  is 
obtained  in  any  case  by  first  ascertaining  what  the  molecular 
weight  is,  then  the  atomic  weight,  and  then  dividing  the  molec- 
ular weight  by  the  atomic  weight. 

Conditions  Influencing  Affinity. 

115.  In  paragraph   14   it  is  stated  that  one    property   of 
atoms  is  that  those  of  one  kind  have  an  attraction  for  certain 
other  kinds.     This  attractive  force  is,  as  already  stated,  called 

perature  scale  used,  it  may  be  either  the  number  of  units  of  heat  required 
to  raise  one  pound  of  water  at  39.2°  F.  through  1°  F.,  or  one  pound  of  water 
at  4°  C.  through  1°  C.,  or  one  kilogram  of  water  through  1°  C.  (large  calorie), 
or  one  gram  of  water  at  4°  C.  through  1°  C.  (small  calorie). 


36  NOTES   CW  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

affinity  or  chemical  affinity.  It  operates  between  atoms  only. 
Chemical  changes  which  result  in  the  formation  of  new  sub- 
stances, by  new  groupings  of  the  atoms  involved,  are  due  to 
the  operation  of  this  force.  The  intensity  of  its  action  varies 
between  different  atoms  and  is  modified  by  different  conditions. 
The  quantity  of  heat  evolved  in  the  formation  of  new  substances 
is,  in  any  given  case,  to  some  extent  a  measure  of  this  intensity, 
as  well  as  of  the  stability  of  the  resulting  molecules. 

116.  There  are  certain  causes  and  conditions  which  influence 
the  action  of  chemical  affinity.  Among  these  the  following  may 
be  enumerated : 

Temperature. — Substances  that  do  not  combine  at  one 
temperature  will  combine  at  another;  and  conversely,  through 
the  action  of  temperature  alone,  decomposition  may  be  effected. 
Increase  of  temperature  may  cause  either  a  synthetical  or  an 
analytical  reaction;  for  example,  the  synthetical  reaction 
where  heat  is  used  in  forming  metallic  oxides,  and  the  analytical 
reaction  where  lime  is  formed  from  marble  by  heat. 

Solution. — In  order  to  have  the  force  of  chemical  affinity 
act,  it  is  necessary  that  the  molecules  be  very  close  together. 
Chemical  affinity  acts  at  very  short  distances  only.  The  form  of. 
solution  is  particularly  favorable  to  the  action  of  chemical  affinity. 
Therefore  it  is  used  to  get  chemical  combination  where  other 
methods  have  failed.  The  objection  to  a  solid  form  is  that  the 
force  of  cohesion  opposes  combination  by  impeding  or  prevent- 
ing the  mutual  penetration  and  close  proximity  of  the  particles 
of  the  different  substances.  In  gases  cohesion  does  not  inter- 
fere with  chemical  action,  but  owing  to  the  distance  between 
the  particles  preventing  the  necessary  close  proximity,  bodies 
evince  but  little  disposition  to  combine  when  in  the  gaseous 
state  and  under  normal  pressure.  If  any  reaction  will  take 
place  at  all,  it  will  take  place  in  the  case  of  solution. 

Insolubility — The  principle  of  insolubility  may  be  stated 
thus:  when  two  soluble  substances,  which  contain  between  them 
the  constituents  of  an  insoluble  or  sparingly  soluble  substance, 
are  brought  together  in  the  form  of  solutions,  the  insoluble  or  less 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  37 

soluble  substance  is  formed  and  appears  in  the  combined  liquids 
as  a  suspended  solid,  called  a  precipitate,  which  eventually  will 
settle  to  the  bottom.  For  example,  if  a  solution  of  silver  nitrate 
(AgN03)  be  mixed  with  a  solution  of  common  salt  (NaCl),  a 
metathetical  reaction  will  take  place,  the  metals  silver  and 
sodium  exchanging  places  in  the  molecules,  forming  silver  chlo- 
ride (AgCl)  and  sodium  nitrate  (NaN03),  the  former  appearing 
suspended  in  the  resulting  liquid  as  a  white  curdy  precipitate. 
The  reaction  would  be  represented  thus : 

AgN03  +  NaCl = AgCl + NaN03. 

Volatility. — The  principle  of  volatility  may  be  stated  as 
follows:  if  two  substances  contain  between  them  the  constitu- 
ents of  a  volatile  substance,  and  these  two  substances  be  mixed 
and  heated  together,  the  volatile  substance  will  be  formed 
and  separate  as  gas.  For  example,  if  pulverized  ammonium 
chloride  (NH4C1)  be  mixed  with  pulverized  sodium  carbonate 
(Na2C03)  and  the  mixture  heated,  the  volatile  substance 
ammonium  carbonate  ((NH4)2C03)  will  be  formed  and  pass  of! 
as  a  gas,  leaving  sodium  chloride. 

Physical  Surroundings. — The  atmosphere  surrounding  a 
substance  has  an  influence  on  the  chemical  reactions  which  may 
take  place.  For  example:  If  iron  oxide  be  heated  in  an  atmos- 
phere of  hydrogen,  the  oxygen  combines  with  the  hydrogen, 
passing  off  as  water  vapor  and  leaving  ultimately  metallic  iron. 
Conversely,  if  water  vapor  be  passed  over  heated  iron  filings, 
iron  oxide  will  be  produced  and  hydrogen  gas  liberated. 

Nascent  State. — By  nascent  state  is  meant  the  state  of 
the  element  or  substance  just  in  the  act  of  being  separated  in 
chemical  decomposition.  The  nascent  state  is  particularly 
favorable  to  chemical  combination.  Reactions  which  will 
not  otherwise  take  place  may  take  place  at  the  instant  that 
atoms  are  freed  from  the  bonds  that  have  held  them  in  a 
molecule. 

Pressure. — The  retarding  influence  of  pressure  is  seen  in 
such  cases  as  the  action  of  acids  on  metals,  or  the  electrolysis 


38  NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

of  water  in  sealed  tubes.  In  these  cases  the  elimination  of  a 
gas  is  an  essential  condition  of  the  change,  and  this  being  pre- 
vented, the  action  is  retarded.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
numerous  reactions  which  are  greatly  promoted  by  increased 
pressure — those,  namely,  which  depend  on  the  solution  of  gases 
in  liquids,  or  on  the  prolonged  contact  of  substances  which 
under  ordinary  pressure  would  be  volatilized  by  heat. 

The  relation  of  chemistry  to  explosives  has  recently  been 
admirably  enunciated  in  a  paper  entitled  "  The  R61e  of  Chem- 
istry in  the  War  "  (Senate  Document  340,  64th  Congress,  1st 
Session)  by  Allerton  S.  Cushman,  Ph.D.,  Director  of  the  Institute 
of  Industrial. Research,  Washington,  D.  C.,  which,  with  the  per- 
mission of  Dr.  Cushman,  is  republished  in  Appendix  III  of 
these  "Notes,"  pages  349-371. 

Stoichiometry. 

117.  Stoichiometry  is  that  part  of  chemistry  which  deals  with 
the  computations  of  the  weights  of  substances  used  in  chemical 
reactions  and  resulting  therefrom,  and  in  the  volumes  of  gases 
connected  therewith.    The  foregoing  principles  may  be  applied, 
now,  in  the  solution  of  chemical  problems  involving  weights  and 
gaseous  volumes. 

118.  It  has  been  seen  that  symbols  represent  atoms;  that 
the  atoms  have  definite  weights  for  each  element,  and  that 
the  weight  of  the  molecule  of  any  substance  is  the  sum  of  the 
weights  of  the  atoms  which  compose  the  molecule. 

It  may  now  be  stated  that  the  symbols  may  be  used  not 
only  to  represent  atomic  weights  of  the  elements,  but  any 
weights  proportional  to  their  atomic  weights.  In  Stoichiometry 
they  are  so  used.  That  is,  to  the  abstract  numbers  in  the  second 
column  of  the  table  on  pages  3  and  4  the  name  of  any  unit  of 
weight  may  be  applied,  such  as  grams,  ounces,  pounds,  tons. 

A  reaction  that  is  true  for  the  atomic  weights  proper  is 
equally  true  if  the  same  proportions  by  weight  be  observed,  using 
any  unit  of  weight. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  39 

For  example:  one  atom  of  oxygen  unites  with  two  atoms 
of  hydrogen  to  make  water.  Since  the  weight  of  the  oxygen 
atom  is  16  and  the  hydrogen  atom  1,  it  follows  that  any  weights 
whatever  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  the  proportions  of  16  to  2 
will  produce  18  parts  by  weight  of  water.  That  is,  16  Ibs.  of 
oxygen  will  unite  with  2  Ibs.  of  hydrogen  to  make  18  Ibs.  of 
water,  and  we  may  write  0  +  H2  =  H20.  Any  unit  of  weight 

16  +    2     =       18 

may  be  applied  to  the  numbers  written  below  the  symbols. 

In  the  same  way  any  reaction  may  be  utilized  to  solve 
problems  involving  weights. 

119.  Reactions  may  also  be  used  to  solve  problems  relating 
to  volumes  of  gases,  and  these  problems  are  often  of  value 
in  dealing  with  explosives. 

The  symbols  of  the  atoms  of  gaseous  elements  may  be  considered 
to  represent  the  atomic  spaces  as  well  as  atomic  weights,  it  being 
kept  in  mind  that  the  ultimate  standard  volume  for  the  com- 
parison of  gases  is  the  space  occupied  by  the  half -molecule,  and 
that  all  single  molecules,  whether  simple  or  compound,  have 
equal  volumes.  These  principles  were  enunciated  in  paragraphs 
102  and  109,  and  it  was  seen  in  the  latter  paragraph  that  one 
volume  of  oxygen  united  with  two  volumes  of  hydrogen  to 
make  two  volumes  of  water- vapor,  or  that,  giving  concrete  values 
to  the  volumes,  one  cubic  foot  of  oxygen  will  combine  with  two 
cubic  feet  of  hydrogen  to  make  two  cubic  feet  of  water- vapor, 
considering  all  gases  at  the  same  temperature  and  pressure. 
Expressed  in  connection  with  the  reaction,  this  may  be  written 

0  +  H2  =  H20. 

1  cu.  ft,    2  cu.  ft.        2  cu.  ft. 

In  the  same  way,  any  reaction  involving  gases  may  be  made 
use  of  to  write  out  the  volume  relations  existing  among  the 
reagents  in  the  first  member  of  the  equation  and  the  products 
in  the  second  member.  If  any  solids  appear  in  the  reaction 
they  are  not,  of  course,  to  be  considered  in  these  volume 
relations. 


40  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

120.  In  solving  problems  in  stoichiometry,  it  will  be  useful 
to  keep  certain  units  and  numbers  in  mind;  among  these  may 
be  enumerated  the  following: 

1  cubic  foot  of  hydrogen  at  60°  F.  and  30  inches  barometer- 
weighs  about  37  grains;  at  0°  C.,  40  grains. 

1  pound  of  hydrogen  under  same  temperature  and  pressure 
occupies  about  189  cubic  feet. 

1  gram  =  15.43  grains. 

1  litre  =61.02  cu.  inches  =  1.76  pints. 

1  gram  of  hydrogen  at  0°  C.  and  760  mm.  barometer  occu- 
pies 11.16  litres. 

Volumes  of  gases  under  the  same  pressure  vary  with  tem- 
perature, increasing  as  the  temperature  increases,  or  decreasing 
as  the  temperature  decreases;  as  follows:  A  volume  of  gas  at 

60°  F.  will  increase  or  decrease  its  volume  -       ,  of  its  volume 


for  each  degree  of  temperature  Fahrenheit  above  or  below  60°  F., 

or  will  increase  or  decrease  its  volume  at  0°  C.  7^7  of  that  volume 

273 

for  each  degree  centigrade  of  increase  of  temperature  or  decrease 
of  temperature  above  or  below  0°  C. 

Pressure  of  Gases.  —  If  the  volume  of  a  gas  remains  constant 
and  the  temperature  changes,  the  pressure  of  the  gas  will  increase 

or  decrease  according  to  these  same  ratios  —  by  r~  ,   of  the 


pressure  at  60°  F.  or  ~=~  of  the  pressure  at  0°  C.  for  each  degree 


Fahrenheit  or  centigrade,  respectively. 

The  ratio  giving  the  rate  of  change  in  terms  of  volume  at 
any  other  temperature  than  60°  F.  or  0°  C.  may  be  obtained 
from  the  denominators  of  the  fractions  given  for  60°  F.  and 
0°  C.,  by  adding  the  number  of  degrees  of  higher  temperature 
or  subtracting  the  number  of  degrees  of  lower  temperature.  For 

example,  the  ratio  for  volume  at  0°  F.  would  be  r  „  ,     rn  — 
A'  and  for  20°  C'  W0uld  be  273  +  20  =  293- 


PRINCIPLES  'OF  CHEMISTRY.  41 

The  coefficient    of  expansion   at  any  temperature   is   one 
divided  by  the  corresponding  absolute  temperature. 

PROBLEMS. 

1.  To  find  the  relative  weights  of  the  constituents  in  any 
quantity  of  a  compound,  as,  for  instance,  H20.     It  is  seen  that  in 
this  formula  the  constituents  of  the  compound  are  in  the  pro- 
portion by  weight,  of  16  to  2.     It  makes  no  difference  whether 
we  deal  with  a  single  molecule  or  a  pound  of  water,  this  same 
relation  obtains.     In  the  first  case  the  unit  is  the  microcrith,  in 
the  second,  the  unit  is  the  pound.     If  required,  therefore,  to  find 
the  number  of  pounds  of  hydrogen  to  make  a  ton  of  water, 
we  have  this  proportion: 

2:18::z:2000  pounds. 

2.  To  find  the  percentage  composition  of  a  substance,  given 
the  molecular  formula.     Let  us  take,  for  example,  cellulose  : 


The  following  form  will  be  found  convenient  in  solving  such 
problems  : 

Atomic       No.  of        Total  p 

weights,      atoms.      weights. 

C  12  6  72 


1          10  10  jg2=  6-2 

16  5          ^  S=49.4 

loz 


3.  To  find  the  empirical  formula  of  a  substance,  given  the 
percentage  composition  and  atomic  weights.  The  empirical 
formula  is  the  simplest  expression  for  the  numerical  relations 
of  the  atoms  as  determined  by  analysis,  and  this  is  directly 


42  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

connected  with  the  percentage  composition.  It  is  found  by 
first  determining  by  analysis  the  composition  of  a  substance 
and  then  dividing  each  part  by  weight  by  the  atomic  weight 
of  the  corresponding  element.  For  example,  take  cellulose  as 
in  the  last  problem: 

Part  by        Atomic 
weight.        weights. 

0=72^12  =  6 
H  =  10-  1  =  10 
0  =  80^16=  5 

4.  To  find  the  molecular  formula  having  the  empirical 
formula  and  the  molecular  weight.  By  chemical  analysis  de- 
termine the  relative  parts  by  weight.  Divide  the  weight  of  each 
element  thus  obtained  by  the  atomic  weight  of  that  element 
for  the  proportional  number  of  atoms  in  the  compound.  The 
empirical  formula  will  be  the  smallest  number  of  whole  atoms 
consistent  with  this  proportion.  The  molecular  formula  will 
be  that  combination  of  atoms  whose  weight  in  the  aggregate 
is  equal  to  the  molecular  weight.  For  example:  A  compound 
of  carbon  and  hydrogen  is  analyzed.  The  total  weight  of  the 
compound  is  6|  grams.  It  is  known  that  its  molecular  weight 
is  78.  Analysis  gives  6  grams  of  carbon  and  ^  gram  of  hydrogen. 


Taking  the  lowest  number  of  whole  atoms  we  have  for  the 
empirical  formula  CH,  the  combined  weight  of  the  atoms  of 
which  is  12  +  1  =  13. 

It  is  evident  that  the  molecular  formula  will  therefore  be 
78^13  =  6  times  greater  than  that  of  the  empirical  formula. 
Consequently,  the  molecular  formula  is  C6H6. 

5.  Since  the  atomic  weights  of  substances  represent  not 
only  the  actual  weights  of  atoms,  but  also  the  weight  of  ^quan- 
tities proportional  thereto,  if  we  fix  on  the  weight  of  any  one 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  43 

element,  all  the  others  are  fixed  by  that  act.  For  example,  (a) 
take  the  reaction  Cu  -f  0  =  CuO.  Assume  5  grains  of  copper. 

Then  63.2:16:  :5:x  .'.  a:  =  1.26  grains  of  0.  The  atomic 
weights  of  Cu  and  0  being  63.2  and  16  respectively,  x  gives  the 
weight  of  0  in  grains. 

63.24-16  =  79.2. 

Then  63.2:79.2:  :5:x      /.  x  =  6.26  grains  of  CuO. 

(6)  Take  the  reaction  CaC03+  heat  =  CaO  +  C02.  Assume  30 
pounds  of  CaC03.  The  weights  of  the  resulting  products  would 
be  found  as  follows  : 


CaO=404-16  =  56  =  mol.  wt. 


CaC03  =          100  = 

100:56:  :  30:  x,  giving  16.8  pounds  CaO 
100:  44::  30:2,     "       13.2      "       C02. 

6.  As  each  molecule  occupies  two  volumes,  we  can  from 
inspection  of  a  chemical  equation  readily  determine  the  number 
of  molecules,  and  from  these  the  volumes  of  the  gaseous  reagents 
or  products. 

Take  CH4.  It  is  a  combustible  gas  (marsh-gas)  .  Both  C  and 
H  unite  with  0  in  burning.  C  will  burn  to  C02,  and  for  this  we 
must  have  2  atoms  of  0.  H4  will  burn  to  2H20,  and  for  this  we 
must  also  have  2  atoms  of  0.  In  order,  therefore,  to  burn  CH4 
we  must  supply  it  with  4  atoms  of  0.  We  may  therefore  write: 


2  vols.      4  vols.     2  vols.       4  vols. 

These  volumes  may  refer  to  any  unit  of  volume.  For  example, 
assume  20  cubic  feet  of  CH4.  The  problem  would  then  be,  How 
many  cubic  feet  of  0  are  required  to  burn  20  cubic  feet  of  CH4? 
We  have,  2:4:  :20:o;  /.  z  =  40  cubic  feet. 

Again,   take   the  reaction,   N  +  H3  =  NH3.     Note   that   the 

1  vol.  3  vols.      2  vols. 

sums  of  the  volumes  in  the  two  members  of  the  equation  do 


44  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

not  have  to  balance;  the  sums  of  the  weights  on  both  sides  of 
the  equality  sign  must,  however,  always  balance. 

7.  In  order  to  pass  from  weights  to  volumes,  we  have  the 
following  relation: 

Wt.  of  gas 

~77  —  7T-       —  r  =  volume. 
Wt.  of  unit  vol. 

(usually  1  cubic  foot) 

Therefore  weight  of  gas  =  volume  in  cubic  feetX  weight  of 
1  cubic  foot  of  gas. 

8.  To  find  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  and  the  specific  gravity 
of  a  mixture  of  gases;  for  example,  atmospheric  air. 

Assume  the  weight  of  1  cubic  foot  of  H  (barometer  30", 
thermometer  32°  F.)  =40  grains. 

Any  given  weight  or  volume  of  air  consists  approximately  of 

02  +  4N2 

2  vols.     8  vols. 

10  vols. 
02  =  16X2=  32 


144 

/.     Wt.  1  vol.  air  =  TV  of  144=  14.4  =specific  gravity 
"    1  cubic  foot  H  .        =40gr. 
"     1      "        "    air         =40xl4.4  =  576gr. 

9.  To  find  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  air  that  will  be  required 
to  burn  100  pounds  of  wood.  Assume  wood  to  have  the  molec- 
ular formula  CeHioOs  and  the  reaction  of  combustion  to  be 
as  follows: 

C6H1005  +  6  (02  +  4N2)  =  6C02  +  5H20  +  48N 
Mol.  wts.:  162      +6(32  +  112)=  1026 

It  therefore  takes  1026  pounds  of  air  to  burn  162  pounds 
of  wood. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  45 

How  much  will  it  take  to  burn  100  pounds? 

162 : 864::  100  :z.     .-.  £  =  533.33  pounds. 
To  reduce  to  cubic  feet:  7000  gr.  =  1  pound. 


1  cu.  ft.  air  =  576  gr.  576)3733300  grs. 


6481  cu.  ft. 

11.  Assume    that    the    following    represents    the    reaction 
involved  in  the  burning  of  illuminating-gas.     If  there  be  in  this 
group  of  mixed  ga"ses  2  cubic  feet  of  hydrogen,  what  are  the 
other  volumes? 

5SH2    +    2C2H4    +     CH4   +   2H2    +    1602    +      O      =    13H2O    +   5CO2   +   5SO2 
10  vols.         4  vols.  2  vols.      4  vols.      32  vols.       1  vol.       26  vols.       10  vols.     10  vola. 

5  cu.  ft.       2  cu.  ft.        1  cu.  ft.   2  cu.  ft.    16  cu.  ft.  0.5  cu.  ft.  13  cu.  ft.      5  cu.  ft.   5  cu.  ft. 

Since  there  are  2  cubic  feet  of  hydrogen  and  4  standard  vol- 
umes of  hydrogen   (2H2),   one  standard  volume  in  this  case 

is-    — r—    —=0.5  cubic  foot.     Multiply  each  number  of  "  vols." 

by  0.5  cubic  foot  and  we  have  the  volume  of  each  gas  in  cubic 
feet,  as  shown  below  each  molecular  formula. 

12.  a.  Find  the  percentage  of  iron  in  limonite  or  brown 
haematite,  2Fe203.3H20. 

2Fe2  =  56X4  =  224 
203  =16X6=  96 
3H2  =  1X6=  6 
30  =16X3=  48 

Mol.  wt.  =  374 
From  which  the  per  cent  of  Fe  is  found  to  be  59.9. 

b.  Same  for  haematite  or  specular  iron  ore,  Fe20s. 

Fe2  =  56x2  =  112 
03  -16X3=  48 

Mol.  wt.  =  160 
From  which  the  per  cent  of  Fe  is  found  to  be  70. 


46  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

c.  Same  for  magnetite  or  magnetic  oxide,  Fe304. 

Fe3=56x3  =  168 
04  =16x4-  64 


232 
From  which  the  per  cent  of  Fe  is  found  to  be  72.4. 

d.  Same  for  spathic  ore,  clay  ironstone,  or  blackband,  FeC03. 

Fe  =  56xl  =  56 
C   =12x1=   12 

=  48 


116 
From  which  the  per  cent  of  Fe  is  found  to  be  48.3. 

e.  Same  for  iron  pyrites,  FeS2. 

Fe  =  56xl  =  56 
S2  =32x2=  64 

120 
From  which  the  per  cent  cf  Fe  is  found  to  be  46.7. 

13.  The  celebrated  Russian  chemist  Merideleeff  has  sug- 
gested a  method  of  comparing  explosives  by  finding  the  num- 
ber of  volumes  in  the  explosive  reaction  corresponding  to  1000 
parts  by  weight;  this  volume  *is  indicated  by  the  symbol  Viooo- 
The  effect  of  the  temperature  of  the  explosion  is  not  considered. 

a,  Determine  Mendeleeff's  relation  of  Viooo  in  the  following 
reaction  for  black  gunpowder  : 

solid 


202     +     32    +   36  6  vols.     +  2  vols. 


270  8  vols. 

270:1000:  :8:y10oo;     Viuoo  =  29.6  volumes. 

1  The  numbers  under  the  reagents  (first  members  of  the  equations)  are 
molecular  weights,  those  under  the  products  (second  members  of  the  equa- 
tions) are  volumes. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  47 

b.  Same  for  brown  gunpowder: 

solid 

6KN03  +  2C5H40  =  3K2C03  +  7CO  .+  4H20  4-  3N2 

606         +         160  14  vols.  +  8  vols.      +  6vols. 

766  28  vols. 

766  :  1000  :  :  28  :  V  1000  ;     FIOOO  =  36.5  volumes. 

c.  Same  for  nitroglycerine  : 

4C3H503(NO2)3  =  12C02  +  10H20  +  6N2  +  02 

908  24  vols.     +    20  vols        +  12  vols.  +  2  vols. 

58  vols. 

908:1000:  :58:  VioooJ     Fiooo  =  63.9  volumes. 

d.  Same  for  guncotton  : 

C6H7Ofi(N02)3  =  3C02  +  9CO  +  7H2O  +  3N2 

594  6  vols,     +  18  vols.  +   14  vols.     +  6  vols. 

44  vols. 

594:1000:  :44:Ficoo;     7x000  =  74.1  volumes. 

e.  Same  for  smokeless  powder;    nitrocellulose  having  12.75 
per  cent  of  nitrogen,  N,  which  is  about  the  percentage  in  smoke- 
less powder  for  cannon  in  the  United  States  : 

2Ci2H15Oio(N02)5  -  C02  +  23CO  +  15H20  +  5N2 

1098  2  vols.  +  46  vols.     +  30  vols.       +  10  vols. 

88  vols, 

1098:1000:  :88:Fi00;     yiooo  =  80.1  volumes. 


/.  Same  for  C  burned  with  sufficient  supply  of  0: 


12  +  32        2  vols. 
44 

44:1000:  :2:Fiooo;     Fiooo  =  45.5  volumes. 

g.  Same  for  C  burned  with  insufficient  supply  of  oxygen: 
C+0=CO 

12  +  16      2  vols. 
28 

28:1000:  :2:  VioooJ     71000  =  71.4  volumes. 
h.  A  comparison  of  the  values  of  FIOOO  in  /  and  g  is  impor- 


48  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

tant  because  on  this  basis  depends  the  whole  argument  of 
Mendeleeff  as  to  the  desirability  of  so  arranging  the  percentage 
of  C,  H,  0,  and  N  in  nitrocellulose  as  to  have  all  the  C  burn  to 
CO.  When  this  is  done,  we  get  the  reaction  for  Mendeleeff's 
pyrocellulose,  which  is  nitrocellulose  containing  12.44%  of 
nitrogen  : 

=  30CO  +  19H20  +  6N2 

1350  =   60vols.    +    38vols.       +    12vols. 


HOvols. 

1350:1000:  :110:yiooo;     7iooo  =  81.5  volumes. 

i.  Same  for  cordite  (used  in  our  service  in  Armstrong  guns)  ; 
a  mixture  of  nitroglycerine  and  nitrocellulose: 


3  +  7C6H805(N02)2  =  48CO  +  33H20  +  10N2 

454  +  1764  96vols.    +    66  vols.       +    20  vols. 

2218  182  vols. 

2218:1000:  :182:Fiooo;     Fiooo  =  82  volumes. 
/.  Same  for  picric  acid,  used  in  shell  (lyddite,  melinite,  etc.)  : 
4C6H2(N02)3HO  =  6H20  +  22CO  +  5N2  +  2CN 

916  =    12  vols.    +    44  vols.     +  10  vols.  +    4  vols. 


70  vols. 

916 : 1000 : :  70 :  FIOOO;     FIOOO  =  76.4  volumes. 


GENERAL  PROPERTIES  OF  IMPORTANT  SUBSTANCES. 

The  following  general  properties  of  important  substances 
may  be  committed  to  memory  with  advantage,  preparatory  to 
laboratory  work: 

The  nitrates  are  all  soluble  in  water. 

The  dichlorides,  except  that  of  lead,  are  soluble  in  water. 

The  monochlorides,  except  those  of  silver  and  mercury,  are  sol- 
uble in  water. 

The  sulphates  are  soluble  in  water,  except  that  of  calcium, 
which  is  but  slightly  soluble,  and  that  of  barium,  strontium, 
and  lead,  which  are  insoluble. 

The  sulphates  are  insoluble  in  alcohol. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CHEMISTRY.  49 

The  carbonates  are  insoluble  in  water,  except  those  of  the  alka- 
lies; they  are  all  soluble  in  water  containing  C02  in  solution, 

i.e.,  carbonated  water. 
The  carbonates,  except  those  of  the  alkalies,  are  decomposed  by 

heat  (CO2  passing  off). 
The  carbonates  are  decomposed  by  sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  and 

nitric  acid,  with  evolution  of  C02  and  effervescence. 
The  chlorates  are  soluble  in  water. 
The  acetates  are  soluble  in  water. 
The  oxides  are  insoluble  in  water,  except  those  of  the  alkalies 

and  barium,  which  are  soluble;  those  of  the  alkaline-earth 

metals,  except  barium,  are  slightly  soluble. 
The  sulphides  are  insoluble  in  water,  except  those  of  the  alkalies 

and  alkaline  earths. 
The  hydroxides  are  insoluble  in  water,  except  those  of  the  alkalies 

and   alkaline-earth  metals,  the  latter  being  but   slightly 

soluble. 
The  phosphates  are  insoluble  in  water,  except  those  of  the 

alkalies. 


II. 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF 
EXPLOSIVES. 

BEFORE  treating  directly  of  explosives  proper,  it  will  be 
advantageous  to  consider  apart  the  substances  used  in  their 
manufacture. 

Regarded  from  the  point  of  their  composition,  explosives 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  namely: 

1.  Explosive  mixtures. 

2.  Explosive  compounds. 

The  former  consist  of  an  intimate  mixture  of  distinct  sub- 
stances, properly  prepared  and  conglomerated  mechanically  in 
varying  proportions  to  meet  the  requirements  of  different  de- 
mands. Each  particle  of  such  explosive  mixtures  must  have 
at  least  a  particle  of  some  oxygen-supplier,  such  as  a  nitrate  or 
chlorate,  and  some  combustible,  such  as  carbon  or  sulphur. 
The  old  black  and  brown  powders  and  the  new  explosive  called 
ammonal  are  typical  examples  of  such  mechanical  mixtures. 
The  characteristic  quality  of  such  explosives  is  that  the  nature 
of  the  explosion  may  be  graded  by  varying  the  proportions  of 
the  ingredients. 

The  latter  class  consist  of  substances  whose  molecules 
contain  within  themselves  the  oxygen  and  carbon  and  hydrogen 
necessary  for  combustion.  Any  substance  whose  molecule 
contains  oxygen,  carbon,  and  hydrogen  in  the  proportions 
to  give  CO,  or  C02  and  H20,  may  become  an  explosive. 
One  which  is  so  constituted  and  at  the  same  time  has  weak 
molecular  bonds  due  to  the  presence  of  the  radical  N02  or 
other  weak-binding  radical  is  an  explosive  compound.  The 
characteristic  quality  of  this  class  of  explosives  is  that  the  ele- 
ments constituting  the  explosive  are  always  present  in  the 
molecule  in  the  same  quantities,  according  to  the  law  of  fixed 

50 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.      51 

proportions,  and  the  nature  of  the  explosion  cannot  be  graded 
by  varying  the  quantities  of  the  constituent  elements,  as  in 
the  case  of  mechanical  mixtures. 

The  substances  used  in  the  manufacture  of  these  two  classes 
of  explosives  may  be  considered  conveniently  in  the  following 
order : 

1.  The  nitrates  and  chlorates,  used  as  oxygen-suppliers  in  ex- 

plosive mixtures. 

2.  The  combustibles,  charcoal  and  sulphur,  used  in  explosive 

mixtures. 

3.  The  hydrocarbons  and  other  compounds  of  organic  origin 

used  in  the  manufacture  of  high  explosives,  and  of  the 
more  recently  developed  nitro-powders.  This  includes 
hydrocarbons  proper,  alcohol,  ether,  acetone,  phenol,  glycer- 
ine, cellulose,  and  certain  nitro-derivatives  of  some  of 
these,  including  the  nitrobenzenes,  nitronaphthalene,  nitro- 
phenol. 
Reference  is  made  in  this  connection  to  the  part  played 

chemically  by  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon  in  explosives, 

as  given  on  pages  349-368,  Appendix  III. 

Potassium  Nitrate,  (KNO3).     Nitre.     Saltpetre. 

This  salt  is  found  in  nature  as  an  incrustation  on  the  surface  of 
certain  soils  in  hot  countries.  It  results  in  such  instances  from 
the  decomposition  of  nitrogenous  organic  matter  in  the  presence 
of  moist  alkaline  earths.  The  decomposition  of  both  animal  and 
vegetable  matter  produces  ammonia;  the  oxidation  of  ammonia 
in  nature  appears  to  be  furthered  by  the  growth  of  certain  low 
forms  of  vegetable  life;  this  combines  with  the  atmospheric 
oxygen,  yielding  nitric  acid,  and  this,  in  turn,  acts  on  other 
potassium  salts  to  produce  the  nitrate;  the  solution  evaporating 
at  the  surface  leaves  the  solid  as  an  incrustation. 

It  may  be  produced  artificially  by  the  nitre-bed  process. 
Vegetable  and  animal  matter  are  piled  together  in  large  heaps, 
with  limestone,  old  mortar,  wood  ashes,  and  any  alkaline 
material,  on  an  impervious  floor  protected  from  the  weather. 


52  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

One  side  is  made  nearly  vertical  and  this  side  is  exposed  to  the 
prevailing  wind;  the  opposite  side  is  cut  into  terraces.  Urine 
from  stables  and  other  sources  is  poured  over  the  terraces, 
which  have  a  slight  pitch  toward  the  body  of  the  heap,  with  a 
small  gutter  cut  at  the  inner  junction  of  the  step  with  the  body 
of  the  heap.  The  temperature  is  kept  at  60°  to  70°  F.  The 
liquid  seeps  through  the  mass,  and  the  chemical  action  described 
above  takes  place  in  the  body  of  the  heap;  the  soluble  nitrates 
percolating  through  the  heap  finally  reach  the  vertical  side 
exposed  to  the  wind,  and  evaporation  occurring  there  leaves  on 
this  surface  an  incrustation  of  nitrate  mixed  with  other  salts. 

The  nitre  coming  from  these  sources  is  known  as  crude.  An 
analysis  of  crude  saltpetre  from  India  gave  the  following: 
nitre,  97.40;  potassium  chloride,  0.84;  sodium  chloride,  0.20; 
insoluble,  0.21;  water,  1.35.  The  crude  nitre  from  the  beds  con- 
tains in  addition,  as  a  rule,  chlorides  of  calcium,  magnesium, 
and  ammonium.  Crude  nitre  must  be  refined  before  using  in 
explosives.  The  chlorides  are  separated  from  the  nitre  by  dis- 
solving the  mass  in  hot  water.  The  nitre  crystallizes  first  in 
cooling  and  is  ekimmed  off.  The  chloride  remaining  in  solu- 
tion is  converted  into  nitre  by  mixing  with  a  solution  of  sodium 
nitrate. 

It  is  important  that  nitre  used  for  explosives  should  contain 
no  chlorides  because  of  their  hygroscopic  properties.  A  sample 
should  therefore  always  be  subjected  to  the  standard  test  for 
chloride.  The  sample  solution  should  be  tested  also  with 
barium  chloride  or  nitrate  for  any  sulphate,  and  with  ammonium 
oxalate  for  lime. 

Nitre  is  distinguishable  by  the  form  of  its  crystals  (long 
striated  or  grooved  six-sided  prisms),  and  by  its  deflagration 
when  heated  on  charcoal.  It  fuses  at  635°  F.  (335°  C.)  to  a 
colorless  liquid  which  solidifies  on  cooling  to  a  translucent 
crystalline  mass.  Heated  to  red  heat  it  effervesces  from  the 
escape  of  oxygen  and  becomes  reduced  to  the  nitrite  (KN02). 
If  heated  beyond  this,  the  nitrite  is  decomposed,  leaving  a  mix- 
ture of  K20  and  K202. 

Its  value  in  explosives  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  acts  as  a 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN   THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.   53 

supplier  of  oxygen  to  the  combustible  element  present.  Five- 
sixths  of  its  oxygen  is  available  for  combination  with  any  com- 
bustible, the  nitrogen  coming  from  its  decomposition  being 
given  off  in  the  free  state.  The  reaction  for  the  decomposition 
of  nitre  by  charcoal  may  be  represented  as  follows: 


Owing  to  the  concentrated  form  in  which  the  oxygen  is 
presented  to  the  carbon  by  nitre,  carbon  burning  to  C(>2  or 
CO  gives  a  much  higher  temperature  than  in  ordinary  combus- 
tion where  the  0  is  supplied  by  the  air. 

The  specific  gravity  of  nitre  is  2.07  compared  with  water. 
Since  one  cubic  inch  of  water  weighs  252.5  grains,  one  cubic 
inch  of  nitre  weighs  (252.5x2.07  =  )  523  grains. 

Write  2N03K  =  N205OK2. 

The  five  atoms  of  oxygen  of  the  N205  only  are  available  for 
combustion;  that  is,  in  202  grains  (weight  proportional  to  the 
weights  of  two  molecules)  of  nitre  there  are  80  grains  of  oxygen 
free  to  unite  with  a  combustible.  Since  one  cubic  inch  of  nitre 
weighs  523  grains,  it  will  contain  (523:202:  :z:80)  207  grains  of 
oxygen  available  for  combustion,  and  since  16  grains  of  oxygen 
gas  has  a  volume  of  46.7  cubic  inches  at  60°  F.  and  30"  barom- 
eter, the  207  grains  of  oxygen  in  one  cubic  inch  of  solid 
nitre  will  be  equivalent  to  607  cubic  inches  of  oxygen  gas  at 
60°  F.  and  30"  barometer.  And  since  there  is  but  one  volume 
of  oxygen  in  five  volumes  of  air  (4N  +  0),  we  arrive  at  the 
result  that  one  cubic  inch  of  nitre  contains  as  much  oxygen  as 
is  found  in  3000  cubic  inches  of  air  at  60°  F.  and  30"  barometer. 

It  is  this  fact  that  causes  the  high  temperature  of  explosions 
of  black  gunpowder.  The  nitre  presents  the  oxygen  to  the 
charcoal  and  sulphur  in  concentrated  and  pure  form,  and  the 
reaction  between  the  minute  particles  of  the  mixture  takes 
place  at  each  point  in  a  very  short  time.  All  of  the  nitrates 
that  are  used  in  explosives  are,  like  nitre,  oxygen-carriers. 

Almost  all  of  the  nitre  now  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder is  obtained  by  the  conversion  of  sodium  nitrate  into 


54  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

potassium  nitrate  by  means  of  potassium  chloride.  When 
sodium  nitrate  and  potassium  chloride  are  mixed  and  the  solu- 
tion boiled  down,  sodium  chloride  is  deposited  and  potas- 
sium nitrate  remains  in  the  boiling  liquid,  the  reaction  being 
NaN03  +  KC1  =  KN03  +  NaCl. 

The  potassium  chloride  required  for  this  conversion  is 
obtained  from  the  refuse  of  the  sugar-beet  root,  and  from  cer- 
tain salt  deposits,  notably  the  salt-mines  of  Stassfurt,  Saxony; 
also  from  sea-salt,  seaweed.  The  mineral  carnallite  is  a  double 
chloride  of  potassium  and  magnesium. 

Sodium  Nitrate,  (NaN03).     Peruvian  or  Chile  Saltpetre. 
Cubical  Saltpetre. 

This  salt  is  found  in  large  beds  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
soil  in  the  provinces  of  Atacama  and  Tarrapaca,  Chile.  It 
occurs  at  depths  of  from  one  to  five  yards,  and  in  strata  from 
two  to  twelve  feet  thick.  The  mined  earth  contains  from  fif- 
teen to  sixty-five  per  cent  of  sodium  nitrate  and  a  large  quantity 
of  other  salts,  such  as  sulphates,  chromates,  chlorates,  iodates, 
borates,  etc. 

The  crude  nitrate  is  extracted  from  the  earth  by  a  process 
of  boiling  and  crystallization.  As  thus  obtained  it  contains 
about  one  or  one  and  a  half  per  cent  of  impurities,  chiefly 
sodium  chloride  and  sodium  sulphate. 

The  sodium-nitrate  crystal  is  different  from  that  of  potas- 
sium nitrate;  the  former  being  a  rhombohedron,  the  latter  a 
six-sided  prism. 

Sodium  nitrate  is  more  hygroscopic  than  potassium  nitrate, 
and  on  this  account  cannot  be  used  with  advantage  in  the 
manufacture  of  explosives,  unless  the  explosive  be  kept  abso- 
lutely protected  from  the  air.  As  mentioned  under  potassium 
nitrate,  its  chief  value  in  connection  with  explosives  is  as  a 
source  from  which  potassium  nitrate  may  be  obtained  by  chem- 
ical reaction.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  nitric  acid.1 

1  It  is  estimated  that  at  the  present  rate  of  consumption,  the  Chilian 
saltpetre  beds  will  be  exhausted  in  about  thirty  years.  This  fact  has  caused 
a  revival  of  the  old  process  of  producing  nitrates  and  nitric  acid  by  the  oxida- 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.    S3 

Ammonium  Nitrate  (NH4NO3). 

This  salt  has  properties  resembling  in  a  general  way  those  of 
the  two  nitrates  just  considered.  It  was  formerly  looked  upon 
with  favor  as  an  oxygen-carrier  in  explosives  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  the  basic  part,  NH4,  on  explosion,  gave  free  gases 
instead  of  solids.  Its  excessive  hygroscopic  properties,  how- 
ever, have  eliminated  it  from  use,  except  in  a  few  special  explo- 
sives which  are  so  prepared  as  to  be  protected  against  the 
action  of  the  air.  It  is  used  in  certain  blasting-powders  and 
dynamites  with  a  view  to  reducing  the  temperature  of  the 
explosion,  the  weak  affinity  of  the  element  nitrogen  for  other 
products  of  explosion  causing  a  comparatively  low  temperature 
of  explosion;  dissociation  of  the  products  also  favors  a  lower 
temperature. 

The  "fire-damp  "  gas  (marsh-gas,  CH4)  is  explosive  when 
mixed  with  two  volumes  of  oxygen  or  ten  volumes  of  air. 
This  mixture  ignites  at  about  2200°  C.  The  temperature  of 
explosion  of  most  explosives  is  above  this;  therefore,  when  used 
in  mines,  they  may  serve  to  ignite  the  fire-damp. 

tion  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  air.  Over  one  hundred  years  ago  Cavendish 
observed  that  the  electric  spark  would  oxidize  the  nitrogen  of  the  air,  which 
is  composed  of  about  79  parts  of  nitrogen  by  volume  and  21  parts  of  oxygen. 
It  is  only  recently,  however,  and  in  the  face  of  the  prospective  disappearance 
of  natural  sources,  that  this  fact  has  been  considered  of  use  in  a  commer- 
cial way.  A  plant  has  been  installed  at  Notodden,  Norway,  where  nitrate 
of  calcium  is  being  manufactured,  applying  the  Cavendish  principle.  Air 
is  forced  at  a  carefully  regulated  rate  through  a  disk  of  electric  arcs.  The 
high  temperature  of  the  arcs  causes  the  oxidation,  but  unless  removed  speedily 
from  this  temperature  the  nitrogen  oxide  is  decomposed  by  the  same  heat. 
By  forcing  the  air  through  the  disk  its  movement  is  so  regulated  that  at  a 
certain  velocity  the  oxide  is  not  reduced,  and  is  conducted  on  to  a  tower  down 
which  milk  of  lime  is  made  to  trickle,  and  this  latter  absorbs  the  nitrogen 
oxide.  .  The  electricity  used  at  Notodden  is  generated  by  water-turbines. 
About  75,000  litres  of  air  are  passed  through  the  plant  per  minute.  Each 
unit  produces  about  325  tons  of  calcium  nitrate  per  year,  the  chemical  equiva- 
lent of  250  tons  of  nitric  acid,  100  per  cent,  or  337  tons  of  nitrate  of  sodium. 
The  total  capacity  of  the  Notodden  plant,  three  units  at  present,  is  equivalent 
to  about  1000  tons  of  Chilian  saltpetre  per  year. 

Another  process  of  fixing  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  by  oxidation  is  known 
as  the  cyanamid  process.     (See  page  357,  Appendix  III.) 


56  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Good  types  of  these  so-called  " safety"  explosives  are  the 
Favier  Explosives.  P.  A.  Favier  of  Paris  suggests  the  following 
safety  mixture : 

Favier  No.  1 — Ammonium  nitrate 88  per  cent. 

Dinitronaphthalene 12  per  cent. 

The  nitrate  is  dried  in  a  steam-heated  tube,  pounded  in  a  heated 
mortar,  and,  while  still  heated,  sprinkled  with  melted  dinitro- 
naphthalene,  pressed  into  cylinders,  dipped  in  melted  paraffin, 
and  wrapped  in  paraffined  paper. 

When  exposed  to  gentle  heat,  ammonium  nitrate  melts  at 
150°  C.,  boils  at  210°  C.,  and  disappears  in  the  form  of  steam 
and  nitrous  oxide : 

NH4N03 + heat  -  N20 + 2H20. 

It  deflagrates  if  heated  suddenly  to  a  high  temperature,  as 
by  throwing  it  on  a  red-hot  surface.  If  very  carefully  heated 
it  may  be  sublimed. 

Interest  has  lately  been  revived  in  this  substance  by  the 
fact  that  it  is  an  ingredient  in  the  explosive,  "  ammonal."  This 
explosive  consists  essentially  of  ammonium  nitrate  and  pul- 
verulent metallic  aluminum,  the  latter  being  prepared  by  a 
special  process.  Some  potassium  nitrate  and  charcoal  are  also 
present  in  varying  proportions  in  different  grades  of  ammonal. 

The  chief  claim  for  ammonal  is  that  the  aluminum  protects  the 
ammonium  nitrate  from  moisture  and  thus  eliminates  the  objec- 
tion heretofore  held  against  its  excessive  hygroscopic  properties. 

Ammonal  has  given  excellent  results  as  a  charge  for  shell 
and  for  disruptive  purposes.  As  a  mechanical  fixture  it  pos- 
sesses the  insensitiveness  of  this  class  of  explosives.  It  must, 
however,  prove  itself  to  be  a  thoroughly  stable  mixture  when 
stored  for  long  periods  of  time  under  the  conditions  to  be 
found  in  ordinary  service  and  storage  magazines.  It  is  too 
new  and  untried  an  explosive,  as  yet,  to  merit  a  place  among 
standard  military  explosives. 

Closely  allied  to  ammonal  is  ginite,  which  is  one  of  the  explo- 
sives used  by  the  French  in  their  hand  grenades.  It  is  composed 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     57 

chiefly  of  nitrate  of  ammonium,  the  other  component  sub- 
stances being  trinitrotoluol,  (T.N.T.),  powdered  aluminum,  and 
dicyanadiamide.  It  is  claimed  for  it  that  it  can  be  exploded  by 
a  simple  fulminate,  is  unaffected  by  heat  or  moisture,  is  not 
detonated  by  shock,  and  has  an  explosive  strength  considerably 
greater  than  that  of  picric  acid. 

Barium  Nitrate. 

Of  all  the  metallic  nitrates  used  in  explosives,  barium 
nitrate  is  least  hygroscopic.  It  is,  on  this  account,  used  in  some 
cases  instead  of  KN03.  It  is  much  heavier  than  the  other 
alkaline  and  alkaline-earth  nitrates. 

It  is  found  in  nature  as  the  mineral  witherite.  Artificially 
it  is  produced  by  dissolving  the  carbonate  in  dilute  nitric  acid. 

It  is  decomposed  by  heat,  leaving  the  oxide  of  barium  and 
giving  off  oxygen  with  some  form  of  nitrogen  oxide,  depending 
on  the  degree  of  temperature  used. 

It  is  an  ingredient  in  some  of  the  modern  military  and  sport- 
ing smokeless  powders. 

Its  rate  of  combustion  is  slower,  its  temperature  of  ignition 
higher,  and  the  quantity  of  free  oxygen  available  is  less  than 
for  potassium  nitrate. 

The  per  cent  of  oxygen  in  the  several  nitrates  just  consid- 
ered is  given  in  the  following  table : 

Sodium  nitrate 56.47%  NaN03. 

Ammonium  nitrate 60.00%  NH4N03. 

Potassium  nitrate 27.49%  KN03. 

Barium  nitrate 36.78%  Ba(N03)2. 

Of  the  60%  of  oxygen  in  ammonium  nitrate  only  20%  is 
available  as  free  oxygen,  80%  being  required  for  combination 
with  hydrogen  to  form  water,  as  shown  by  the  molecular  formula 
when  written  thus:  N20(H20)2- 

Although  barium  nitrate  gives  the  lowest  percentage  of  0 
by  weight,  by  volume  it  gives  about  the  same  as  nitrate  of 
sodium  on  account  of  its  high  specific  gravity. 


58  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

The  Chlorates. 

The  chlorates  are  oxygen-carriers  like  the  nitrates.  They 
act  more  readily  as  oxidizers  and  at  lower  temperatures.  In- 
deed they  part  with  their  oxygen  so  readily  that  the  heat  of 
even  ordinary  friction  will  cause  the  union  of  their  oxygen 
with  a  combustible.1  This  is  favored  in  the  case  of  potassium 
chlorate  by  the  fact  that  its  molecule  gives  off  heat  in  breaking 
up.  At  high  temperatures  the  chlorates  act  violently  on  all 
combustible  substances.  Potassium  chlorate  is  the  oxidizing 
ingredient  in  signal  and  pyrotechnic  compositions,  being  usually 
mixed  with  sulphur  and  some  metallic  compound  to  give  the 
color  desired  to  the  flame.  The  following  combinations  may 
be  given : 

Red  Fire — (1)  40  grains  strontium  nitrate  thoroughly  dried  over 
a  lamp  are  mixed  with  10  grains  of  potassium  chlorate  and 
reduced  to  the  finest  powder.  In  another  mortar  13  grains 
of  sulphur  are  mixed  with  4  grains  of  black  sulphide  of  anti- 
mony. The  two  powders  are  then  placed  upon  a  sheet  of 
paper  and  very  intimately  mixed  with  a  bone-knife,  avoid- 
ing great  pressure. 

(2)  Another  prescription :  Charcoal  1  part,  shellac  2  parts, 
sulphur  8  parts,  potassium  chlorate  12  parts,  strontium 
nitrate  40  parts. 

Blue  Fire. — Potassium  chlorate  15  parts,  potassium  nitrate  10 
parts,  oxide  of  copper  30  parts;  mix  in  mortar;  transfer 
mixture  to  paper  and  mix  with  a  bone-knife  with  sulphur 
15  parts. 

Green  Fire. — Barium  chlorate  10  parts,  barium  nitrate  10  parts; 
mix  in  mortar;  transfer  to  paper;  mix  these  with  sulphur 
12  parts. 

A  composition  of  friction-primers  for  cannon  consists  of 
twelve  parts  of  potassium  chlorate,  twelve  parts  of  sulphide  of 

1  A  mixture  of  pulverized  potassium  chlorate  and  sulphide  of  antimony 
explodes  if  struck  with  a  hammer.  A  grain  or  two  of  potassium  chlorate 
rubbed  in  a  mortar  with  a  little  sulphur  will  explode. 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN   THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  59 

antimony,  and  one  part  of  sulphur  worked  into  a  paste  with  a 
solution  of  an  ounce  of  shellac  in  a  pint  of  grain  alcohol. 

The  explosive  used  in  fire-crackers  is  a  mixture  of  potas- 
sium chlorate  and  lead  ferrocyanide. 

All  mixtures  of  chlorates  with  combustible  substances  are 
liable  to  spontaneous  combustion. 

Sulphur,  S. 

Sulphur  is  found  in  the  uncombined  state  in  nature  in  cer- 
tain volcanic  districts.  It  is  found  in  the  combined  state  espe- 
cially in  the  sulphide  ores  of  many  metals,  and  in  some  mineral 
waters  as  hydrogen  sulphide.  Among  the  ores  may  be  men- 
tioned iron  pyrites  (FeS2),  copper  pyrites  (CuFeS2),  galena 
(PbS),  blende  (ZnS),  crude  antimony  (Sb2Ss),  cinnabar  (HgS). 
Also  with  oxygen  and  the  metals  as  sulphates,  such  as  gypsum 
(CaS04.2H20),  heavy  spar  (BaS04)  ,  Epsom  salts  (MgS04.7H20), 
Glauber's  salts  (Na2S04.10H20). 

Sulphur  is  obtained  from  native  veins  in  volcanic  districts. 
It  is  obtained  also  by  reduction  from  the  sulphides  (either  the 
ores  or  the  tank-waste  residue  of  alkali  works). 

The  process  of  getting  sulphur  from  the  alkali  works  is 
known  as  the  Chance-Glaus  process.  Calcium  sulphide  was 
formerly  a  useless  by-product  in  the  making  of  sodium  car- 
bonate.1 Now  it  is  a  paying  by-product.  The  calcium  sulphide 
waste  is  mixed  with  water,  stirred  into  a  paste,  and  run  into 
large  cast-iron  vessels  (carbonizers)  ;  through  this  mass  C02  is 
forced.  The  effect  of  heat,  moisture,  and  C02  is  to  form  CaCOs 
and  liberate  SH2.  The  SH2  is  passed  into  a  gas-holder,  where 
it  is  mixed  with  air  and  burned  : 


1  The  production  of  CaS  in  the  alkali  works  is  as  follows: 
2NaCl  +  SO4H2  =  SO4Na2  -f  2HC1. 


SO4Na2  +  C4  =  Na2S  +  4CO. 

CO3Ca  +  C  =  CaO  +  2CO. 

Na2S  +  CaO  +  CO2  =  Na2CO3  +  CaS. 


60  NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

The  sulphur  obtained  by  the  Chance-Glaus  process  is  of 
great  purity  and  requires  no  refining. 

Native  sulphur  obtained  from  the  veins  is  purified  by  direct 
distillation  and  subsequent  refining  to  free  it  of  earthy  impuri- 
ties. The  same  process  is  followed  in  obtaining  sulphur  from 
iron  and  copper  pyrites. 

The  refining  process  is  conducted  in  large  retorts  connected 
with  a  subliming  chamber  and  distilling  tank;  it  consists  of 
melting  down  the  crude  sulphur  and  distilling  it  from  the 
molten  state. 

In  refining  crude  sulphur,  whether  from  native  sulphur  or 
the  pyrites  ores,  a  charge  of  seven  hundred  pounds,  or  over, 
of  the  crude  sulphur  is  put  in  a  large  cast-iron  retort.  A  fire 
is  started  under  the  retort.  The  sulphur  will  begin  to  melt  at 
239°  F.  This  will  be  evidenced  by  the  appearance  of  a  light 
yellow  vapor  above  the  mass.  The  vapor  of  sulphur  rises  and 
passes  into  a  subliming-chamber,  where  it  is  condensed  and  falls 
as  "  flowers  of  sulphur."  When  the  temperature  of  the  mass  is 
about  560°  F.,  red  fumes  will  be  observed  in  the  retort.  Dis- 
tillation then  takes  place  instead  of  sublimation.  The  vapor 
of  sulphur  now  passes  over  into  a  condensing- tank  which 
is  cooled  by  circulating  cold  water,  and  it  is  condensed  as 
a  thick  yellow  liquid.  The  sulphur  which  first  passes  over  is 
known  as  sublimed  sulphur  or  flowers  of  sulphur;  it  is  not  used 
for  making  gunpowder,  as  it  sometimes  contains  a  small  per- 
centage of  foreign  substances;  it  is  returned  to  the  retort  for 
reworking.  That  which  is  distilled  over  at  the  higher  tempera- 
ture is  known  as  distilled  or  roll  sulphur;  it  is  this  that  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder. 

As  an  ingredient  of  gunpowder,  sulphur  is  valuable  on 
account  of  the  low  temperature  (500°  F.)  at  which  it  ignites, 
thus  facilitating  the  ignition  of  the  mixture;  its  combination 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  nitre  gives  also  a  higher  temperature 
than  would  obtain  if  charcoal  alone  were  used;  this  higher 
temperature  has  the  effect  of  increasing  the  rate  of  combustion 
and  pressure  of  the  gases  evolved. 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN   THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.   61 

Heat  has  an  extraordinary  effect  on  the  physical  condition 
of  sulphur.  If  a  quantity  of  sulphur  be  placed  in  a  glass  flask 
and  heated,  the  following  changes  will  be  observed : 

At  about  120°  C.  it  is  a  pale  yellow,  limpid  liquid.  As  the 
temperature  rises  from  120°  C.  the  color  grows  darker  and  the 
liquid  more  viscous  until,  at  180°  C.,  it  is  nearly  black  and 
opaque,  and  so  viscous  that  the  flask  may  be  inverted  without 
spilling  the  sulphur.  At  this  point  the  temperature  remains 
constant,  although  the  application  of  heat  continues,  showing 
changes  taking  place  within  the  molecular  structure  of  the  sul- 
phur. On  continuing  the  heat,  the  sulphur  becomes  liquid  again 
at  280°  C.,  though  not  so  mobile  as  at  first.  At  444°  C.  it  boils 
and  is  converted  into  a  brownish-red,  very  heavy  vapor,  and  an 
explosion  often  takes  place  between  the  red  vapor  and  the  air. 

If  the  flask  be  now  removed  from  the  flame  and  decanted 
into  water,  the  sulphur  will  descend  through  the  water  in  the 
form  of  a  brown,  soft,  elastic,  rubber-like  string.  If  a  portion 
be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  flask  and  to  cool  therein,  it  will 
pass  successively  through  the  same  states  as  described  above 
in  the  inverse  order,  becoming  black  and  viscous  at  180°  C., 
and  a  pale-yellow  thin  liquid  at  120°  C.;  if  it  now  again  be 
poured  into  cold  water,  it  will  descend  through  it  in  small 
button-like  drops  of  ordinary  sulphur.  As  the  portion  still  left 
in  the  flask  cools  it  will  deposit  small  tufts  of  crystals,  and 
finally  solidify  into  a  yellow  crystalline  mass. 

The  brown,  rubber-like  sulphur  after  a  few  hours  will  become 
yellow  and  brittle ;  the  change  is  accelerated  by  gentle  heat  and 
is  attended  with  an  evolution  of  the  heat  made  latent  at  the 
180°  C.  stage. 

The  roll  sulphur,  or  distilled  sulphur,  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  powder  is  always  easily  soluble  in  carbon  disulphide; 
the  flowers  of  sulphur  only  partially  so. 

Charcoal.     Carbon.     C. 

Carbon  is  the  combustible  element  of  most  explosive  mix- 
tures, and  it  is  present  in  combination  with  hydrogen  in  most 
explosive  compounds.  Its  function  in  all  cases  is  to  combine 


62  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

with  oxygen,  producing  either  CO  or  C02,  the  heat  resulting 
from  this  chemical  reaction  causing  increased  volume  of  the 
gases  produced. 

In  black  gunpowder  and  other  mechanical  mixtures  the 
carbon  is  supplied  in  the  form  of  pulverized  charcoal.  The 
charcoal  used  in  the  manufacture  of  powder  is  obtained  by  the 
destructive  distillation  of  certain  woods  and  woody  fibres,  such 
as  willow,  alder,  dogwood,1  and  rye  straw;  the  lighter  woods 
being  used  because  they  give  a  charcoal  more  easily  combustible 
than  the  heavier  ones. 

The-  charring  is  done  in  a  metallic  cylinder  placed  in  a  retort 
over  a  furnace-fire.  The  effect  of  the  heat  is  to  drive  off  the 
volatile  parts  of  the  wood;  these  pass  off  for  the  most  part 
in  the  form  of  wood  naphtha  (CH40),  pyroligneous  acid  (X^EUC^), 
carbon  dioxide,  carbon  monoxide,  and  water,  leaving  a  residue 
containing  from  70  to  85  per  cent  of  carbon,  associated  with 
small  quantities  of  hydrogen  (5%  to  3%),  oxygen  (23%  to 
10%),  and  ash  (about  2%)  consisting  of  the  carbonates  of 
K,  Ca,  Mg,  calcium  phosphate,  potassium  sulphate  and  silicate, 
sodium  chloride,  oxides  of  Fe  and  Mg. 

The  wood  consists  of  sticks  about  \  to  f  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter, cut  into  short  lengths.  It  is  cut  when  in  full  sap,  in  the 
spring  of  the  year,  is  stripped  of  its  bark,  and  dried  for  a  con- 
siderable time  either  in  the  open  air  or  in  hot-air  drying-chamber. 
Charcoal  that  is  charred  in  cylinders  is  called  cylinder  charcoal, 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  common  pit  charcoal. 

After  charring,  the  charcoal  is  kept  for  about  two  weeks 
exposed  to  the  air;  it  is  then  ready  for  grinding  for  powder- 
making.  If  ground  at  once  after  charring,  there  is  danger  of 
spontaneous  combustion  from  combination  with  oxygen  of  air. 

The  charring  process  takes  from  2J  to  3J  hours;  its  com- 
pletion is  known  by  the  blue  flame  of  CO  burning  to  C02  at 
the  mouth  of  the  pipe  which  conducts  the  volatile  products  of 
distillation  from  the  retort  to  the  flame  of  the  furnace  under 
the  retort.  The  charred  wood  weighs  about  30%  of  its  original 
weight. 

1  European  dogwood. 


SUBSTANCES   USED  IN   THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.   63 

If  charred  at  temperatures  above  400°  C.,  the  product  is  not 
sufficiently  friable.  At  very  high  temperatures,  1000°  to  1500° 
C.,  the  charcoal  is  very  hard,  dense,  and  rings  with  a  metallic 
sound. 

The  temperature  of  ignition  varies  directly  with  the  tem- 
perature of  charring.  Charcoal  that  has  been  charred  at  260° 
to  280°  C.  will  ignite  at  from  340°  to  360°  C.;  that  made  at 
290°  to  350°  C.,  at  from  360°  to  370°  C.;  that  at  432°  C.,  at 
about  400°  C.;  that  at  1000°  to  1500°  C.,  at  600°  to  800°  C. 

If  mixed  with  sulphur,  it  ignites  at  lower  temperatures; 
that  made  at  temperatures  under  400°  C.  mixed  with  powdered 
sulphur  will  ignite  at  250°  C.  If  the  charcoal  has  been  made 
at  higher  temperatures,  the  sulphur  burns,  leaving  the  charcoal 
unchanged. 

The  capacity  of  charcoal  to  decompose  the  nitrates  varies 
in  the  same  way.  Charcoal  made  at  temperatures  between 
270°  and  400°  C.  will  combine  with  saltpetre  at  400°  C.;  if 
made  at  temperatures  of  1000°  to  1500°  C.,  it  combines  only 
when  heated  to  redness. 

Freshly  made  charcoal  has  remarkable  powers  to  absorb  cer- 
tain gases  into  its  pores.  One  cubic  inch  of  charcoal  will  absorb 
100  cubic  inches  of  ammonia  oxygen  gas,  50  cubic  inches  of  sul- 
phuretted-hydrogen gas,  10  cubic  inches  of  oxygen,  and  7  cubic 
inches  of  water- vapor.  This  is  purely  a  mechanical  effect,  but 
the  intimate  association  of  such  gases  in  the  mass  of  charcoal 
in  time  develops  chemical  action  and  leads  to  spontaneous  com- 
bustion. Freshly  prepared  charcoal,  pulverized  and  stored  in 
that  form,  will  ignite  spontaneously  if  the  mass  is  over  two 
feet  deep.  The  ignition  begins  at  the  bottom  or  near  the 
bottom.  Samples  thus  treated  have  ignited  in  36  hours. 

The  property  of  freshly  made  charcoal  to  absorb  gases  is 
made  use  of  in  deodorizing  sewers,  cesspools,  etc. 

The  charcoal  formerly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brown 
powder  was  made  from  rye  straw.  The  straw  was  carefully 
selected,  only  the  large,  firm,  perfect  stalks  being  taken.  The 
charring  was  done  by  superheated  steam  at  a  relatively  low  tern- 


64 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


perature.     The  charcoal  contained  about  48  per  cent  of  carbon, 
5.5  per  cent  of  hydrogen,  45  per  cent  of  oxygen,  1.5  per  cent  of  ash. 

Compounds  of  Organic  Origin.1 

Most  of  the  recently  developed  explosives,  whether  used 
for  propulsion  or  disruptive  effects,  are  derived  from  organic 
substances.  Substances  of  organic  origin  are  also  used  in  their 
manufacture.  It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  present  some 
of  the  more  simple  relations  existing  among  these  substances 
and  to  define  certain  general  terms. 

The  organic  substances  enumerated  below  may  be  regarded 
as  the  most  important  ones  in  connection  with  explosives. 

1.  The  Hydrocarbons. — Compounds  of  C  and  H  only,  in 
various  modes  of  grouping,  starting  with  the  saturated  hydro- 
carbon, CnH2n+2,  the  isologous  series  down  to  CnH2n_6,  with  their 
derivatives  constitute  the  fatty  group,  because  many  of  them 
exist  in  fats;  the  CnH2n_6  group  and  its  derivatives  constitute 
the  aromatic  group,  because  many  are  obtained  from  balsams, 
essential  oils,  gum  resins,  etc.  The  physical  state  of  a  hydro- 
carbon may  generally  be  known  from  the  number  of  C  atoms 
present  in  its  molecular  formula.  If  there  be  4  or  less,  the 
substance  is  gaseous;  if  more  than  4  and  less  than  12,  it  is 
liquid;  if  more  than  12,  solid.  Most  hydrocarbons  are  obtained 
by  the  fractional  distillation  of  organic  substances  and  are  vola- 
tile; they  have  characteristic  odors,  are  insoluble  in  water, 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  carbon  disulphide. 

1  The  following  organic  radicals  should  be  noted: 

(HO)'         occurring  in  alcohols  and  phenols,  called  hydroxyl. 

(CO)"  '  '  ketones,  carbonyl. 

(CO.HO)'  '  '  acids,  carboxyl. 

(CH3)'  '  '  wood-alcohol  derivatives,  methyl. 

(C2H5)'  '  <  grain       "  "  ethyl 

(C6H6)'  '  '  benzene  derivatives,  phenyl. 

(CH3CO)'          "  '  acetic  "  acetyl. 

(NO2/  "          "  nitro-compounds,  nitryl 

The  ending  "yl"  indicates  an  unsaturated  radical;  the  unsatisfied  valency 
units  are  indicated  by  the  marks  to  the  right  and  above  the  parentheses 
inclosing  the  radicals. 


SUBSTANCES  USED   IN   THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  65 

The  most  important  of  the  hydrocarbon  series  in  explosives 
are: 

(a)  The  Paraffins.  —  General  formula  CnH2n+2,  in  which  n 
represents  any  whole   number.     They  are  derived 
from  the  fractional  distillation  of  mineral  oil. 

(b)  The  Olefins.  —  General  formula  CnH2n,  in  which  n  repre- 

sents any  whole  number  not  less  than  2.  They  are 
found  in  the  products  of  distillation  of  coal,  wood,  etc. 

(c)  The  Acetylenes.  —  General  formula  CnH2n_  2,  in  which  n 

represents  any  whole  number  not  less  than  2.  The 
first  member  of  this  series,  acetylene,  C2H2,  is  formed 
by  the  direct  union  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  under 
the  influence  of  high  temperature.  The  molecule 
is  endo  thermic,  61,100  units  of  heat  being  absorbed 
in  its  formation.  It  is  the  only  hydrocarbon  that 
has  been  formed  by  direct  union  of  its  elements. 
The  acetylenes  are  found  in  the  products  of  distilla- 
tion of  all  substances  rich  in  carbon  and  hydrogen. 

(d)  The  Benzenes.  —  General  formula  CnH2n_6,  in  which  n 
represents  any  whole  number  not  less  than  6.     The 
hydrocarbons  of  this  series  are  extracted  from  the 
coal-tar  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  coal  in  manu- 
facturing illuminating-gas. 

2.  The  Alcohols.  —  From  their  chemical  behavior  they  may 
be  considered  as  hydroxides  of  the  paraffin  hydrocarbons,  and 
represented  by  the  general  formula  CnH2n+2_,r(HO)x,  in  which 
n  represents  any  whole  number,  and  x  any  whole  number  not 
greater  than  n.  Example  : 

H   H 

I      I 
C2H5.HO,    H—  C—  C—  (HO),    ethyl  alcohol. 


3.  The  Ethers.  —  They  may  be  regarded  as  derived  from  the 
alcohols  by  the  replacement  of  one  or  more  atoms  of  hydrogen 


66  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

of  the  hydroxyl  radicals  of  alcohols  by  a  univalent  paraffin 
hydrocarbon  radical.  Example: 

H   H         H   H 

C2H5.O.C2H5,    H—  C—  C—  0—  C—  C—  H,    ethyl  ether. 

II  II 

H   H         H   H 

They  may  also  be  regarded  as  the  oxides  of  the  paraffin  hydro- 
carbons. Under  this  conception,  the  molecular  formula  for 
ethyl  ether  would  be  written  (C2H5)20. 

4.  The  Ketones.  —  They  may  be  regarded  as  combinations  of 
hydrocarbon  radicals  of  the  paraffin  series  with  carbonyl  (CO). 
Example  : 

H  H 

I  I 

(CH3)2CO,    H—  C—  (CO)—  C—  H,    acetone. 


5.  The  Phenyls.  —  They  are  derived  from  benzene  (CeHe)  by 
substituting  hydroxyl  (HO)  for  one  or  more  atoms  of  hydrogen. 

Example  : 

H 

H         C        H 

\/\/ 
C        C 

C6H5.HO,          |          ||       ,    phenol. 
C        C 

/\/\ 
H         C         H 

(HO) 

6.  The  Quinones.  —  They  may  be  considered  derived  from 
benzene  by  substituting  two  oxygen  atoms  for  two  hydrogen 
atoms.     Example: 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN   THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  67 

H 

H        A 

\/\ 

c      c-o 

C6H402,  |      |  ,     quinone. 

C         C— 0 

/\/ 
H         C 

H 

7.  The  Carbohydrates. — These  are  combinations  of  six  atoms 
of  carbon,  or  some  multiple  of  six,  with  some  multiple  of  the 
water  group  (H20).  Example:  C6(H20)5,  cellulose. 

The  Benzene  Series. 

Benzene  itself  (C6H6)  is  not  used  as  an  explosive,  but  lately 
certain  of  its  derivatives  have  come  into  prominence  as  dis- 
ruptive explosives,  particularly  as  charges  for  shell. 

The  chief  source  of  benzene  is  coal-tar.  In  the  distillation 
of  coal-tar,  that  portion  of  the  distillate  which  passes  over 
between  79°  and  82°  C.  consists  chiefly  of  benzene;  it  is  puri- 
fied by  cooling  below  0°  C.,  at  which  temperature  it  solidifies 
and  the  lighter  hydrocarbons  then  may  be  squeezed  out  by 
pressure.  It  boils  at  80°  C.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  soluble 
in  ether,  acetone,  chloroform,  and  alcohol.  It  is  a  solvent 
for  fats  and  india-rubber,  resin,  sulphur  and  essential  oils.  It  is 
inflammable,  burning  with  a  smoky  flame.  It  is  very  volatile 
and  its  vapor  is  heavier  than  air.  This  vapor  mixed  with  a 
certain  proportion  of  air  is  explosive.  These  facts  make  it 
necessary  to  be  careful  about  exposing  benzene  to  evaporation 
in  laboratory  or  elsewhere.  The  lower  stratum  of  air  in  a  room 
may  be  heavily  charged  with  benzene  vapor  and  the  odor  of 
it  not  be  detected  by  a  person  standing.  It  has  a  strong  char- 
acteristic odor. 


68  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Nitric  acid  acts  upon  it,  converting  it  into  nitrobenzene. 
The  structural  formula  of  benzene  may  be  written  as  follows: 

H 

H         C         H 

\/\/ 
C        C 

I     II 

C         C 

/\/\ 

H         C         H 

H 

or  by  way  of  abbreviation,  it  is  frequently  indicated  by  the 
lines  of  a  hexagon,  thus: 


The  action  of  nitric  acid  is  to  substitute  one  or  more  nitryl 
groups  (NC>2)  for  one  or  more  atoms  of  hydrogen,  giving  rise 
to  the  following  molecular  relations: 

C6H5.N02,    C6H4.(N02)2,    C6H3.(N02)3;    or,  structurally, 


(N02)                        (IS 
1 

F02)                            (N02) 

1 

H         C        H        H         ( 

3        (N02)        II         C 

(N02) 

\  X  \  /         \  X 

\/                   \^  ^ 

\  / 

C        C                    C 

C                          C 

C 

1     II           1 

II              1 

II 

C        C                    C 

C                          C 

C 

/v\  /v\    H/V 

x\ 

(N02) 

H  H  H 

Mononitrobenzene.    Nitrobenzene.    Mirbane  Oil,  C6 

This  substance  is  produced  by  adding  one  part  of  benzene 
to  three  parts  of  a  mixture  of  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.   1.40)  and 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.    69 

sulphuric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.84),  this  mixture  being  made  up  of 
40  parts  of  the  former  to  60  parts  of  the  latter. 

The  benzene  is  added  gradually,  avoiding  too  violent  chem- 
ical action.  The  heat  due  to  this  action  must  not  be  allowed 
to  rise  too  high,  the  reaction  being  conducted  in  running  water. 

Mononitrobenzene  may  be  made  also  by  dropping  benzene 
into  the  strongest  nitric  acid,  or  into  a  mixture  of  equal  volumes 
of  ordinary  nitric  acid  and  sulphuric  acid.  A  violent  chemical 
action  results,  giving  rise  to  red  fumes  and  the  liquid  becomes 
red.  On  pouring  the  liquid  into  several  times  its  volume  of 
water,  a  heavy  oily  liquid  separates,  which  is  mononitrobenzene. 
The  reaction  is 

C6H64-N02.HO  =  C6H5.N02+H20. 

The  red  fumes  result  from  a  secondary  reaction  not  repre- 
sented. 

The  sulphuric  acid,  if  used,  is  present  merely  to  maintain 
the  nitric  acid  at  efficient  strength  by  combining  with  the 
water  formed;  it  undergoes  no  resultant  chemical  change. 

When  the  chemical  action  ceases  the  mixture  is  allowed 
to  cool.  The  nitrobenzene  will  be  found  floating  on  the  top 
of  the  waste  acids.  The  latter  are  separated  from  the  former 
by  a  siphon.  The  liquid  remaining  is  "purified"  of  free  acid 
by  washing  with  water  containing  a  small  quantity  of  sodium 
carbonate.  In  order  to  avoid  the  formation  of  dinitrobenzene, 
an  excess  of  benzene  must  be  used  in  the  process.  A  certain 
quantity  of  unnitrated  benzene,  therefore,  remains  mixed  with 
the  nitrated  product.  These  are  separated  from  each  other 
by  a  process  of  vaporization,  benzene  volatilizing  at  80°  C.,  and 
mononitrobenzene  not  until  205°  C. 

Mononitrobenzene  has  the  characteristic  odor  of  bitter  al- 
monds. It  is  sold  commercially  as  mirbane  oil,  which  consists 
of  the  substance  dissolved  in  alcohol.  In  this  form  it  is  used 
in  perfumery  and  as  a  flavoring  in  confectionery.  It  is  poison- 
ous in  large  doses  both  as  a  vapor  and  a  liquid.  It  is  only  slightly 
soluble  in  water.  It  dissolves  readily  in  alcohol,  benzene,  and 
concentrated  nitric  acid. 


70  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Cold  mononitrobenzene  dissolves  nitrocellulose,  reducing  it 
to  a  pasty  or  jelly-like  mass.  Indurite,  a  smokeless  powder 
invented  by  Professor  C.  E.  Munroe,  consists  of  guncotton 
freed  of  the  lower  nitrocellulose  by  treatment  with  methyl 
alcohol  and  mixed  with  mononitrobenzene  (9  to  18  parts  of 
nitrobenzene  to  10  of  guncotton).  Suitable  oxidizing  salts 
may  be  added.  The  mixture  is  then  treated  with  hot  water 
or  steam,  which  has  the  effect  of  hardening  it  to  the  consistency 
of  bone  or  ivory,  hence  its  name. 

Mononitrobenzene  is  not  explosive  alone,  but,  under  the 
application  of  heat,  decomposes  with  evolution  of  nitrous 
fumes. 

If  heated  to  a  high  temperature  in  the  presence  of  oxygen, 
as  when  a  small  amount  is  placed  on  a  red-hot  iron  plate,  it 
will  detonate. 

Ignited  in  the  open  air,  it  burns  with  a  reddish  smoky  flame, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  oxygen  of  the  air  does  not,  under 
these  conditions,  combine  with  the  freed  carbon.  If  mixed 
with  explosive  substances,  such  as  guncotton,  nitroglycerine, 
etc.,  the  mixture  may  be  detonated  by  a  suitable  fulminate 
of  mercury  primer. 

Mixed  with  nitroglycerine  it  serves  to  lower  the  freezing- 
point  of  that  explosive. 

Mixed  with  potassium  chlorate  it  forms  the  explosive  known 
as  rackarock. 

Dinitrobenzene,  C6H4(NP2)2. 

There  are  three  dinitrobenzene  isomers  having  the  same 
molecular  formula  but  having  different  physical  character- 
istics, viz.:  meta-  melts  at  89°  C.,  ortho-  at  118°  C.,  para-  at 
172°  C. 

The  dinitrobenzene  molecule  may  be  represented  as  follows^ 
illustrating  the  principle  of  isomerides,  having  the  same  num- 
ber of  atoms  in  a  molecule  and  the  same  elements,  but  possess- 
ing different  physical  properties,  due  to  the  different  structural 
arrangement  of  the  atoms  within  the  molecule. 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN   THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.    7* 

(N0a)  (N02)  (N0a) 

H         C        (N02)      H         C        H  H         C         H 

vv     vv     vv 


H  H  (N02) 

Ortho-  Meta-  Para- 

The  theory  is,  that  when  adjacent  atoms  are  displaced  one 
substance  is  produced;  when  alternate,  another;  and  when 
opposite  atoms,  still  another.  That  is,  the  benzene  ring  of  six 
carbon  atoms  may  give  rise  to  the  three  isomerides. 

Dinitrobenzene  is  made  as  explained  for  mononitrobenzene. 
except  that  the  acid  mixture  is  maintained  at  boiling  tem- 
perature. On  cooling,  a  yellowish  crystalline  solid  separates 
from  the  liquid  in  long  brilliant  prisms.  This  solid  is  a  mixture 
of  the  three  dinitroisomerides  with  the  meta-  predominating. 

It  is  soluble  in  warm  water  and  alcohol,  and  like  the  mono- 
compound  is  poisonous. 

Heated  in  open  air  it  melts,  and  if  the  temperature  be  raised 
it  ignites  and  burns  with  a  smoky  flame. 

When  mixed  with  oxidizing  substances  it  forms  an  explo- 
sive. In  this  way  it  is  an  ingredient  of  many  modern  explosives 
(see  CundnTs  Dictionary  of  Explosives). 


Trinitrobenzene, 

This  explosive  is  prepared  by  treating  meta-dinitrobenzene 
with  concentrated  nitric  acid  and  fuming  Nordhausen  sulphuric 
acid. 

While  the  substance  possesses  possibilities  of  use  as  an 
ingredient  of  explosives,  little  use  has  been  made  of  it  up  to 
the  present  time. 


72  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Naphthalene,  Ci0H«. 

This  substance  is  a  transparent  crystalline  solid  having  the 
characteristic  odor  of  coal-gas. 

Its  chief  source  is  coal-tar.  In  the  fractional  distillation  of  coal- 
tar  it  passes  over  when  the  temperature  rises  just  above  200°  C. 

When  coal-tar  is  distilled  the  benzene  hydrocarbons  first 
pass  over,  constituting  what  is  known  as  light  oil.  As  the  tem- 
perature rises,  a  heavier  yellow  oil,  heavier  than  water,  passes 
over.  This  is  known  as  dead  oil;  it  is  much  more  in  quantity 
than  the  light  oil,  amounting  to  about  one-fourth  of  the  bulk  of 
the  tar;  it  contains  those  constituents  which  have  a  high  specific 
gravity  and  high  boiling-point.  As  the  temperature  of  the  dis- 
tillation gets  above  200°  C.,  a  solid  is  formed  in  the  distillate 
as  it  cools;  this  is  crystalline  naphthalene.  It  is  separated  from 
the  liquid  by  pressure.  It  is  freed  from  the  heavier  products 
by  sublimation.  If  heated  gently  at  about  200°  C.,  it  sublimes 
over  and  may  be  collected  in  the  form  of  small  transparent 
white  crystals. 

It  is  inflammable,  burning  in  air  with  a  smoky  flame. 

It  is  insoluble  in  water;  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  benzene. 

In  its  chemical  relations  it  is  closely  allied  to  benzene. 

The  substitution  products  derived  from  naphthalene  have 
many  isomerides,  depending  on  which  atoms  of  hj^drogen  are 
displaced. 

Its  relation  to  benzene  is  illustrated  by  its  structural  for- 
mula, which  is  written  as  follows : 

II-;"      H 


II         C         C        H 

\/\/\/ 

C        C         C 

II     I      I 

C        C        C 

/\/\/\ 

H         C         C        H 
H 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.    73 

Its  nitro-substitution  products  are  more  numerous,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  than  those  of  benzene,  since  there  are  a  greater 
number  of  hydrogen  atoms  available  for  replacement  by  the 
nitryl  radical  (N02) . 

While  this  substance  is  not  explosive  alone,  some  of  its 
derivatives  are  susceptible  of  forming  explosives,  and  the  many 
possibilities  presented  by  a  study  of  its  derivatives  marks  it  as 
one  of  the  most  promising  organic  substances  in  connection 
with  further  developments  of  explosives. 


Mononitronaphthalene,  Cio 

Pulverized  naphthalene  is  added  to  a  mixture  of  four  parts 
of  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.40)  and  five  parts  of  sulphuric  acid 
(sp.  gr.  1.84).  The  naphthalene  is  added'  little  by  little  and 
constantly  stirred.  The  temperature  of  the  mixture  is  kept  so 
that  it  does  not  fall  below  71°  C.,  in  order  that  the  nitro- 
naphthalene  formed  will  not  solidify.  When  the  nitration  is 
completed  the  charge  is  run  off  into  lead-lined  tanks,  wherein 
the  mononitronaphthalene  crystallizes  out.  It  is  separated  by 
pressure  from  the  waste  acids,  washed  in  hot  water,  then  granu- 
alted  in  cold  water  and  washed  until  all  trace  of  free  acid  is 
removed. 

It  melts  at  61°  C.;  and  crystallizes  from  the  fused  state  in 
needle-like  yellow  crystals.  It  is  only  slightly  volatile  when 
warmed  or  heated  by  steam. 

It  is  insoluble  in  water;  soluble  in  alcohol,  t^ner,  benzene, 
carbon  disulphide. 

If  heated  above  300°  C.,  it  decomposes. 

It  is  not  explosive  alone,  but  in  connection  with  oxygen- 
carriers  may  become  explosive,  as,  for  example,  in  the  Favier 
explosives  of  France,  in  which  it  is  associated  with  ammonium 
nitrate. 


74  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Dinitronaphthalene,  Ci0H6(N02)2. 

This  is  made  from  the  mononitronaphthalene  by  heating 
it  with  cold  concentrated  nitric  acid,  or  from  the  unnitrated 
naphthalene  by  nitrating  at  boiling-heat  until  entirely  dissolved, 
using  the  strongest  acid,  or  a  mixture  of  a  weaker  nitric  acid 
(1  part)  with  sulphuric  acid  (2  parts) . 

It  is  a  bright-yellow  crystalline  solid,  the  crystals  forming 
in  long  slender  needles. 

It  melts  at  185°  C.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  slightly  soluble 
in  ether  and  in  alcohol,  less  so  in  carbon  disulphide  and  cold 
nitric  acid.  It  is  readily  soluble  in  hot  xylene,  benzene,  acetic 
acid,  and  turpentine. 

If  crystallized  from  its  solution  in  acetic  acid,  it  appears  to 
take  the  form  of  an  isomeride  having  a  melting-point  of  216°  C. 

It  is  chiefly  used  in  the  "  safety  "  explosives  in  association 
with  ammonium  nitrate. 

Trinitro-  and  tetranitro-naphthalene  may  be  formed  by 
repeated  nitration  of  dinitronaphthalene  at  higher  temper- 
atures. While  possibly  available  as  ingredients  of  explosives, 
associated  with  oxygen-carriers,  little  use  has  as  yet  been 
made  of  them. 


Phenol,  Cells  (HO).    Carbolic  Acid. 

Also  called  phenic  acid,  hydroxybenzene,  benzene  hydroxide 
and  monohydrate  of  benzene. 

It  results  from  the  oxidation  of  benzene. 

Its  chief  source  is  coal-tar.  It  passes  over  in  the  fractional 
distillation  of  coal-tar  between  150°  and  200°  C.  It  forms  a 
part  of  the  "heavy  oil"  in  this  process.  After  the  distillation 
of  heavy  oil  is  allowed  to  cool  and  the  naphthalene  has  crystal- 
lized out  and  been  separated,  the  remaining  liquid  is  treated 
with  caustic  soda  and  stirred.  On  standing,  two  layers  of 
liquids  are  observed.  The  upper  layer  consists  of  the  higher 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN   THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     75 

hydrocarbons  of  the  benzene  series,  the  lower  of  a  solution  of 
sodium  phenylate.  This  is  acted  upon  by  sulphuric  acid  and 
purified  by  further  fractional  distillation.  The  phenol  distils 
over  at  between  180°  and  190°  C.;  from  the  distillate  it  crys- 
tallizes out  on  cooling  in  needle-like  crystals. 

It  fuses  at  42°  C.;  boils  at  182°  C.;  is  soluble  in  15  parts 
of  cold  water;  readily  soluble  in  ether  and  alcohol.  198  parts 
by  weight  combine  with  18  parts  by  weight  of  water,  when  heated 
together,  forming  the  aquate  (C6H5HO)2Aq,  which  forms  on 
cooling  six-sided  prisms;  the  aquate  fuses  at  16°  C.  and  is  readily 
soluble  in  water.  The  commercial  phenol  is  usually  the  aquate 
and  soon  becomes  liquid  when  the  bottle  is  placed  in  warm 
water.  Once  fused  it  has  a  tendency  to  remain  in  that  state, 
but  solidifies  suddenly  if  the  cork  is  removed. 

It  blisters  the  skin  and  is  very  poisonous. 

It  is  used  as  an  antiseptic  and  to  arrest  fermentation  and 
putrefaction. 

(HO) 

H         C        H 

YY 

Its  structural  formula  is:1 

C        C 

/\/\ 

H        C        H 

H 

Phenols  combine  more  readily  with  alkalies  than  alcohols 
do,  and  this  property  gave  rise  originally  to  the  designation 
"acid"  used  with  it.  It  may  be  deoxidized  by  passing  its 
vapor  over  heated  zinc-dust,  C&H^HO)  +  Zn  =  C6H6  +  ZnO. 

Certain  compounds  of  phenol  are  used  as  color  tests  for 
acids  and  alkalies. 

1  Benzene  forms  other  hydroxides,  including  dihydroxides  C6H4  (HO)2  and 
the  trihydroxide  C6H3(HO)3,  pyrogallol. 


76  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

The  aqueous  solution  of  phenol  gives  the  following  color 
indications : 

With  ferric  chloride:   purple-blue. 

With  ammonium  hydroxide  and  calcium  chloride:   blue. 

With  mercury  dissolved  in  nitric  acid:  yellow  precipitate. 
The  yellow  precipitate  dissolves  with  dark-red  color  in  nitric 
acid. 

The  most  important  of  its  color-test  compounds  is  Phe- 
nolphthalein.  This  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  all  nitro-ex- 
plosives  to  test  for  the  presence  of  the  salts  of  sodium  or  potas- 
sium, the  presence  of  the  carbonates  or  hydroxides  of  these 
metals  being  indicated  by  a  red  color.  If  a  carbonate  is  tested, 
it  should  be  in  boiling  solution,  driving  off  free  C02,  as  free  C02 
will  neutralize  the  test,  phenolphthalein  giving  no  color  in  excess 
of  C02. 

Picric  Acid,  (C6H2.HO(N02)3).     Trinitrophenol. 

(HO) 

(N02)         C        (N02) 

\/\/ 

C        C 

Its  structural  formula  is:  II          I 


/\/\ 
H        C         H 


(N02) 

When  phenol  is  treated  with  nitric  acid  it  may  form  three 
nitrates,  namely:  mononitrophenol  (C6H4.HO.N02),  the  dinitro- 
phenol  (C6H3.HO(N02)2),  and  the  trinitrophenol.  The  last  only 
has,  as  yet,  found  application  in  explosives.  It  recently  has 
found  use  not  only  as  an  explosive  itself,  but  more  particu- 
larly as  an  ingredient  of  special  explosive  mixtures.  It  and 
its  salts  (the  picrates)  find  application  in  detonating  or  dis- 
ruptive explosives  only.  Most  of  the  new  so-called  "  shell-filler  " 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     77 

explosives  are  either  picric  acid,  mixtures  with  it  or  deriv- 
atives thereof.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Ecrasite, 
Austrian  '^Lyddite,  English;  Melinite,  French;  Shimose,  Japan- 
ese; Abel's  picric  powder  and  Brugere's  powder  (nitre  and 
picrate  of  ammonium);  one  form  of  Rackarock  (nitroben- 
zene and  picric  acid). 


MANUFACTURE   OF  PICRIC   ACID. 

Equal  quantities  by  weight  of  concentrated  H2S04  and 
phenol  are  mixed  in  an  iron  vessel,  stirred  and  heated  by  steam 
to  from  212°  to  250°  F.  From  time  to  time  tests  are  made 
to  see  if  the  phenol -sulphonic  acid  formed  is  soluble  in  cold 
water.  When  this  is  so  the  mixture  is  allowed  to  cool  and 
twice  the  quantity  of  water  is  added. 

The  nitration  then  takes  place  in  earthen  vessels  standing 
in  running  water  which  can  be  heated  by  steam-pipes. 
Three  parts  by  weight  of  nitric  acid  is  placed  in  these  receivers 
and  one  part  of  the  sulphonic  solution  is  added.  The  latter 
is  allowed  to  run  in  gradually,  as  at  first  the  reaction  is  violent. 
Afterwards  it  becomes  sluggish  and  then  steam  is  turned  on 
and  the  temperature  of  the  solution  raised  to  restore  the  chemi- 
cal action. 

The  picric  acid  formed  separates  at  first  as  a  sirupy  liquid 
and  becomes  crystalline  on  cooling.  It  is  separated  from  the 
mother-liquor  in  a  centrifugal  machine,  and  is  washed  in  the 
same  machine  with  pure  warm  water.  The  crystals  are  fur- 
ther purified  by  redissolving  in  warm  water,  recrystallizing, 
and  finally  drying  at  95°  F.1 


1  It  is  reported  that  Professor  Arthur  G.  Green,  of  the  Department  of 
Technical  Chemistry  of  the  University  of  Leeds,  has  invented  a  method  of 
manufacturing  picric  acid  directly  from  benzene  instead  of  by  the  indirect 
method  of  first  producing  carbolic  acid  from  benzene,  and  then  picric 
acid  from  carbolic  acid.  The  yield  by  the  direct  process  is  said  to  be 
much  greater. 


78  NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

The  reactions  of  the  process  are: 

C6H5HO  +  H2S04 = C6H4(S03H)HO  +  H20 ; 

Phenol-sulphonic  acid 

C6H4(S03H)HO  +  3HN03  =  C6H2  (N02)3OH  +  H2S04  +  2H20. 

Picric  acid  has  an  extraordinarily  bitter  taste. 
It  always  gives  an  acid  reaction. 

It  is  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water;  it  dissolves  in  hoc 
water,  giving  a  bright-yellow  color  to  a  Iarg3  volume  of 
water. 

It  dissolves  readily  in  alcohol.  Its  solution  stains  the 
skin  and  other  organic  matter  yellow  and  is  used  in  dyeing  for 
this  purpose.  It  is  one  of  the  few  acids  which  form  sparingly 
soluble  potassium  salts.  A  cold  aqueous  solution  of  picric 
acid  is  an  excellent  test  for  any  soluble  potassium  salt,  giving, 
when  added,  a  yellow,  adherent,  crystalline  precipitate  of 
potassium  picrate.  This  salt  in  the  solid  state  and  dry  is 
very  sensitive,  exploding  with  violence  if  heated  or  struck. 

Considerable  diversity  of  opinion  has  existed  as  to  whether 
picric  acid  is  explosive  if  subjected  to  simple  heating.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  it  is  less  explosive  than  nitroglycerine  and  gun- 
cotton.  If  a  small  mass  is  heated  in  a  capsule  or  flask,  it  melts 
and  gives  off  vapors  which  ignite  and  burn  without  causing 
an  explosion.  A  very  small  quantity  may  be  sublimed  if  care- 
fully heated  in  a  glass  tube.  It  is  a  mistake,  however,  to  think 
that  picric  acid  is  incapable  of  explosion  by  simple  heating. 
If  it  is  heated  to  a  high  temperature,  it  decomposes  with  disen- 
gagement of  heat,  developing  a  process  of  oxidation.  When  a 
decomposition  liberates  heat,  its  rapidity  increases  with  the 
pressure  or  confinement  for  a  given  temperature,  or  with  the 
temperature  for  a  given  pressure;  in  the  latter  case,  the  decom- 
position increases  very  rapidly.  This  principle  suggests  that 
picric  acid  would  explode  if  either  the  temperature  or  pressure 
of  its  environment  should  increase,  and  still  more  rapidly  if 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     79 

both  temperature  and  pressure  increased  together:   this  is  the 
condition  existing  when  it  is  heated  in  a  closed  space. 

Picric  acid  may,  in  accordance  with  these  principles,  be 
made  to  detonate  if  heated  very  suddenly  to  a  high  temperature 
in  an  open  vessel  at  the  ordinary  pressure,  especially  if  the 
vessel  be  heated  itself  beforehand,  so  that  there  is  little  loss  of 
heat  by  conduction. 

If  a  glass  tube  25  to  30  mm.  long  be  heated  to  redness 
and  one  or  two  small  particles  of  picric  acid  be  thrown  into  it, 
they  will  explode  before  they  can  vaporize.  If  the  mass  be 
consideraby  increased,  the  walls  of  the  tube  may  be  sufficiently 
cooled  by  the  mass  of  the  picric  acid  to  modify  or  destroy 
entirely  the  explosive  effect. 

Similar  experiments  may  be  conducted  with  mononitro- 
benzene,  dinitrobenzene,  mono-,  di-,  and  tri-nitronaphthalene. 

The  nature  of  the  decomposition,  whether  explosive  or  non- 
explosive,  and  the  degree  thereof  depend  on  the  temperature 
of  the  enclosure,  the  temperature  and  mass  of  the  explosive 
used. 

If,  however,  a  large  mass  of  an  explosive,  like  any  of  those  just 
named,  were  to  ignite  in  a  closed  space,  its  decomposition  would 
generate  more  and  more  heat,  the  temperature  would  rise  higher 
and  higher,  and  the  phenomenon  might  cause  a  detonation  at 
some  particular  point,  and  the  explosive  wave  there  started 
might  be  transmitted  throughout  a  very  large  mass. 

In  1887  a  disastrous  explosion  of  picric  acid  took  place  in 
the  chemical  works  of  Messrs.  Roberts,  Dale  &  Company,  at 
Manchester,  England.  An  investigation  at  that  time,  and 
experiments  since  made,  have  revealed  the  fact  that  if  picric 
acid  is  in  contact  with  some  metals  or  the  oxides  or  nitrates 
of  some  metals,  such  as  lead,  iron,  strontium,  potassium, 
it  is  quite  likely  that  very  sensitive  explosive  salts  may 
be  formed.  Litharge,  the  oxide  of  lead,  particularly,  has  a 
tendency  to  form  very  sensitive  compounds  if  in  contact 
with  picric  acid,  and  may  cause  the  detonation  of  a  large 
mass  of  it. 


8o  NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Many  accidents  have  resulted  in  handling  shells  charged 
with  lyddite  which  are  presumed  to  have  been  due  to  the  for- 
mation of  such  sensitive  compounds. 

For  these  reasons  red  or  white  lead  should  not  be  used  to 
seal  the  screw-threads  of  shell-plugs  when  the  shells  are  filled 
with  picric  acid  or  derivatives  thereof. 

Picrates,  C6H2(N02)3.MO.     (In  which  M  represents  some 
metal  radical.) 

(MO) 

(NO2)         C         (N02) 

\/\/ 

C        C 

Structural  formula: 

C         C 

/\/\ 

H        C         H 

(N02) 

For  many  years  attempts  have  been  made  to  use  the 
picrates  of  certain  metals  as  ingredients  of  explosives.  In 
1869  a  class  of  powders  were  introduced  in  France,  known  as 
Designolle's  Powders,  consisting  of  picrate  of  potassium,  niter, 
and  charcoal.  Potassium  picrate  is,  however,  too  sensitive 
to  give  a  serviceable  explosive.  About  the  same  time,  Brugere 
in  France  and  Abel  in  England  suggested  the  use  of  ammo- 
nium picrate  instead  of  potassium  picrate.  These  powders 
gave  excellent  results. 

Brugere's  powder  contained: 

Picrate  of  ammonium 54  parts 

Niter 46    " 

It  was  stable,  safe  to  manufacture,  burned  with  slower  rate 
than  black  powder,  was  less  hygroscopic,  had  little  smoke 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN   THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     81 

small  residue,  did  not  attack  metals.  In  the  small-arm  rifle  it 
gave  about  2J  times  the  effect  of  black  powder. 

Abel's  powder  was  practically  the  same,  the  proportion 
being  60  parts  of  ammonium  picrate  to  40  of  nitre. 

Ammonium  picrate  appears  to  be  the  only  picrate  which 
has  given  satisfactory  results.  While  the  metallic  picrates  are 
very  sensitive  to  shock,  ammonium  picrate  is  quite  insensitive. 
It  is  also  very  stable,  showing  no  tendency  to  form  ammonium 
nitrate  in  the  above  mixtures. 

It  is  easily  made  by  saturating  a  hot  solution  of  picric  acid 
with  a  concentrated  solution  of  ammonium  hydroxide,  or  by 
passing  ammonia-gas  through  a  hot  solution  of  picric  acid.  As 
soon  as  the  solution  is  completely  saturated  with  the  new  salt 
it  is  allowed  to  cool,  when  ammonium  picrate  separates  in  the 
form  of  long  yellow  prisms.1 

If  ignited,  it  burns  without  any  tendency  to  explosion. 

It  is  insensitive  to  shock  of  any  kind,  and  can  be  detonated 
only  by  a  very  powerful  primer. 

Trinitrotoluol,  C6H2(N02)3-CH3,  also  known  as  trotol;  tri- 
tone;  trinitrotoluene;  trinitromethylbenzene;  tolite;  trilite; 
trinol;  trotyl. 

Its  structural  formula  may  be  written  as  follows: 

(CH3) 


(N02)— C        C— (N02) 


H— C       C-H 

V 

(N02) 

Its  relation  to  the  benzene  series  is  clearly  evidenced  by 
its  structural  formula,  which  is  similar  to  that  of  picric  acid 
and  the  picrates,  except  that  the  organic  radical,  CH3  (methyl), 


8ia  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES, 

replaces  the  hydroxyl  radical  of  picric  acid  and  the  metallic  rad- 
ical of  the  picrates.  From  this  chemical  similarity  it  might  well 
be  assumed  that  it  would  occupy  a  field  in  explosives  analo- 
gous to  that  of  picric  acid  and  the  picrates,  and  this  is  the 
fact.  It  has,  however,  some  advantages  of  an  important 
nature  which  suggest  that  it  may  eventually  replace  both 
picric  acid  and  the  picrates  as  a  shell-filler,  the  most  important 
of  which  is  that  it  does  not  form  sensitive  compounds  by  com- 
bination with  the  metals.  Its  explosive  force  also  is  slightly 
less  than  either  picric  acid  or  the  picrates.1 

Manufacture. — The  material  is  neither  difficult  nor  dangerous 
to  make.  Commercial  mononitrotoluene  is  made  by  acting  on 
1  part  toluene  2  with  3  parts,  by  weight,  of  mixed  nitric  and 
sulphuric  acids  (40HN03,  sp.  gr.  1.495,  to  COH2S04,  sp.  gr. 
1.84);  the  result  is  a  mixture  of  isomeric  bodies.  This  mixture 
may  be  converted  into  dinitrotoluene  by  nitrating  with  2  parts 
of  the  acid  mixture  to  1  part  of  the  mononitro  product;  the 
dinitro  products  thus  produced  may  be  converted  into  trinitro- 
toluol by  nitrating  again  with  stronger  nitric  acid,  but  there  is 
a  considerable  loss  of  acid  and  the  yield  is  not  high. 

"  According  to  Haussermann,  it  is  more  advantageous  to 
start  with  the  orthoparadinitrotoluene,  which  is  prepared  by 
allowing  a  mixture  of  75  parts  of  91  to  92  per  cent  nitric  acid 
(sp.  gr.  1.495)  and  150  parts  of  95  to  96  per  cent  sulphuric 
acid  (sp.  gr.  1.840)  to  run  in  a  thin  stream  into  100  parts  of 
paranitrotoluene,  while  the  latter  is  kept  at  a  temperature 
between  60°  C.  and  65°  C.,  and  continually  stirred.  When  the 
acid  has  all  been  run  in,  this  mixture  is  heated  for  half  an 
hour  to  80°  C.,  and  allowed  to  stand  until  cold.  The  excess 
of  nitric  acid  is  then  removed.  The  residue  after  this  treatment 
is  a  homogeneous  crystalline  mass  of  orthoparadinitrotoluene, 

1  Experiments  at  Picatinny  Arsenal  indicate  that  the  theoretical  force  of 
picric  acid  is  135,800  pounds  per  square  inch,  that  of  Explosive  D  124,600 
pounds  per  square  inch,    and  that  of  trinitrotoluol  is  119,000  pounds  per 
square  inch. 

2  Toluene  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  coal-gas. 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  Sib 

of  which  the  solidifying  point  is  69.5°  C.  To  convert  this 
mass  into  the  trinitro  derivative,  it  is  dissolved  by  gently 
heating  it  with  four  times  its  weight  of  sulphuric  acid  (95  to 
96  per  cent,  sp.  gr.  1.540),  and  it  is  then  mixed  with  one  and 
one-half  times  its  weight  of  nitric  acid  90  to  92  per  cent,  sp.  gr. 
1.495),  the  mixture  being  kept  cool.  Afterwards  it  is  digested 
at  90°  C.  to  95°  C.,  with  occasional  stirring,  until  the  evolution 
of  gas  ceases.  This  takes  place  in  about  four  or  five  hours. 
The  operation  is  now  stopped,  the  product  allowed  to  cool, 
and  the  excess  of  nitric  acid  separated  from  it.  The  residue  is 
then  washed  with  hot  water  and  very  dilute  soda  solution,  and 
allowed  to  solidify  without  purification.  The  solidifying  point 
is  79°  C.,  and  the  mass  is  then  white,  with  a  radiating  crystal- 
line structure.  Bright  sparkling  crystals  may  be  obtained  by 
recrystallization  from  hot  alcohol.  This  product  melts  at 
81.5°  C."  i 

A  recent  modification  of  the  manufacture  permits  a  melting- 
point  as  low  as  75.5°  C.,  which  allows  second  crystallization 
to  be  omitted. 

It  is  most  usual  to  nitrate  in  three  stages,  using  a  mixture 
of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  (as  single-stage  nitration  requires 
stronger  acids,  which  give  lower  yield  and  have  other  disad- 
vantages). In  the  three-stage  operation,  the  spent  acids  from 
the  last  process  are  used  in  the  second,  etc.,  weaker  solutions 
being  required  in  the  earlier  nitrations  and  stronger  for  the 
tri-nitration.  Nitration  is  done  in  vessels  arranged  for  control 
of  temperatures,  which  are  about  135°  F.,  185°  F.,  and  220°  F. 
in  the  three  stages  respectively. 

When  nitration  is  complete,  the  stirrers  are  stopped  and  the 
acid  settles  to  bottom,  the  nitrated  material  coming  to  the  top, 
and  the  acid  is  drawn  off. 

Purification  following  nitration  consists  of  boiling  in  water 
with  agitation  by  compressed  air  and  addition  of  soda  to  neu- 
tralize acid,  followed  by  several  neutral  boilings  until  acid-free. 

1  J.  C.  Sanford,  "  Nitro  Explosives." 


8ic  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

The  molten  material  is  then  run  out  through  a  jet  into  cold  water, 
to  prevent  formation  of  large  lumps.  The  material  is  next 
melted  in  a  pot  (with  some  water  to  help  separation  of  impur- 
ities) and  then  cooled  in  pots  to  a  finely  crystallized  condition. 
These  processes  eliminate  impurities,  but  do  not  remove  the 
mono-  and  di-nitro  products. 

Crystallization  after  a  further  melting  with  some  solvent, 
which  will  remove  the  products  of  lower  nitration,  must  follow 
if  a  higher  melting-point  than  about  75.5°  C.  is  required.  The 
solvents  used  by  manufacturers  are  trade  secrets. 

After  complete  purification  and  crystallization  the  product 
is  dried,  screened  and  boxed. 

Properties. — Trinitrotoluol  when  pure  has  no  odor  and  is 
a  slightly  yellow  fine  crystalline  powder;  it  assumes  a  brownish 
appearance  as  the  impurities  increase.  It  melts  at  from 
79°  C.  to  81.5°  C.,  depending  upon  the  presence  of  isomers. 
If  melted  and  allowed  to  cool  it  crystallizes  and  forms  a  very 
vesiculated  mass  which  is  difficult  to  explode.  It  should  be 
melted  in  a  water-bath,  though  it  is  not  likely  to  be  exploded 
under  any  application  of  heat  for  melting.  The  sharpness  of 
the  crystallizing  point  is  a  good  indication  of  purity.  It  is 
insoluble  in  water,  and  traces  only  pass  into  solution  at  a  tem- 
perature of  40°  C. 

Its  specific  gravity  when  in  the  form  of  non-compressed 
crystals  is  from  0.8  to  1.0.  It  dissolves  in  alcohol,  ether,  benzene, 
and  toluol. 

Commercial  trotol  undergoes  some  change  when  exposed  to 
metals,  in  the  presence  of  salt  water,  but  does  not  lose  its  ex- 
plosive properties;  no  sensitive  compounds  are  formed  by  the 
action. 

It  behaves  in  a  very  stable  manner  when  exposed  to  the 
air  under  varying  conditions  of  temperature.  It  is  unaffected 
by  contact  with  metals  even  in  the  presence  of  moisture,  and 
forms  no  sensitive  compound  due  to  such  contact. 

It  is  a  very  powerful  explosive  when  detonated,  but  cannot 
be  exploded  by  flame  or  strong  percussion;  a  rifle  bullet  may  be 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  Sid 

fired  through  it  without  effect.  Its  ignition  point  is  180°  C. 
When  flame  is  applied  to  a  mass  of  the  explosive  it  melts,  takes 
fire,  and  burns  quietly  with  a  heavy  black  smoke. 

It  may  be  detonated  in  its  crystalline  form  by  a  mercury 
fulminate  exploder.  Heavy  black  smoke  comes  off  when  it  is 
detonated  in  air  and  a  characteristic  black  cloud  is  seen  at  the 
surface  when  it  is  detonated  under  water.  A  package  of  it  in 
ordinary  paper  with  a  mercury  fulminate  exploder  embedded 
in  the  powder  may  be  detonated  under  water.  A  mound  of  it 
may  be  prepared,  a  depression  made  in  the  center  and  filled 
with  water,  a  fulminate  exploder  placed  in  the  water,  and  the 
whole  mass  detonated  by  the  firing  of  the  exploder. 

Its  explosive  force  at  points  some  distance  from  the  charge, 
when  in  a  loose  crystalline  form,  is  about  the  same  as  that  of 
Explosive  "D,"  and  from  50  to  75  per  cent  greater  than  that 
of  guncotton  wet  with  25  per  cent  of  moisture,  but  is  not 
greater  at  points  in  close  proximity  to  the  charge.  Its  specific 
explosive  force  is  less  than  that  of  guncotton. 

As  a  bursting  charge  for  projectiles  it  is  less  efficient  than 
Explosive  "  D,"  on  account  of  the  fact  that  a  greater  weight  of 
the  latter  can  be  inserted  into  a  given  volume.  Except  in  the 
cast  form,  in  which  condition  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  de- 
tonate, it  is  more  sensitive  to  shock  than  is  Explosive  "  D," 
and  as  a  bursting  charge  for  projectiles  will  not  withstand  im- 
pact on  hard-faced  armor  without  exploding. 

Chemical  Specifications  for  Military  Trinitrotoluol. 

(1)  The  material  must  be  chemically  pure,  and  in  the  form 
of  a  slightly  yellow,  fine  and  uniform  crystalline  powder  passing 
through  a  12-mesh  screen.     No  odor  of  any  by-product  or  crystal- 
lizing agent  must  be  present. 

(2)  Melting-point  must  be  from  80.5°  to  81.5°  C.,  and  must 
be  sharp  and  distinct. 


Sie  NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

(3)  Ash  must  not  be  greater  than  0.10  per  cent. 

(4)  Insoluble  matter  from  a  solution  of  10  grams  in  150  c.c. 
alcohol  must  not  be  greater  than  0.15  per  cent. 

(5)  Moisture  must  not  be  greater  than  0.10  per  cent. 

(6)  There  must  be  no  acidity. 

(7)  No  uncoverted  toluol,  or  dinitrotoluol  or  any  other  by- 
product must  be  present. 

(8)  Nitrogen  must  not  be  less  than  18.30  per  cent  deter- 
mined by  Dumas'  combustion  method.    Pure  trinitrotoluol  con- 
tains 18.5  per  cent  nitrogen. 

(9)  The  material  must  stand  a  heat- test  at  65.5°  C.  with 
K.  I.  starch  paper  of  at  least  30  minutes. 


Tests. 

(1)  Solidifying    Point. — Take    a    porcelain  basin   15  cm. 
diameter  and  a  capacity  of  about  500  c.c.,  dry  the  basin  thor- 
oughly, and  then  take  about  200  to  250  grams  of  trinitrotoluol; 
melt  the  trinitrotoluol  but  do  not  let  the  temperature  get 
above  90°  C. ;  then,  when  all  the  trinitrotoluol  is  melted,  remove 
the  source  of  heat  and  stir  with  a  thermometer  that  has  been 
standardized;    the  temperature  falls  gradually  until  the  tri- 
nitrotoluol begins  to  solidify,  when  it  rises;    keep  on  stirring 
until  the  highest  point  is  reached,  then  note  the  degree  of 
temperature  as  the  solidifying  point. 

(2)  Softening    Point,    Melting-point    Begins,    Melting-point 
Ends. — Take  a  small  quantity  of  trinitrotoluol,  grind  it  up  as 
fine  as  possible,  and  place  in  a  capillary  tube  sealed  at  one 
end    (the    tube    having    about    2J  mm.    bore);     attach    to    a 
standardized  thermometer  by  means  of  a  rubber  ring,  then 
place  in  a  glass  beaker  nearly  full  of  water  and  heat  up  slowly; 
note  that  temperature  (a)  at  which  it  softens,  (6)  begins  to 
melt,  (c)  ends  melting,     (a)  should   not  be  less  than  79°  C., 
(6)  should  not  be  less  than  80.5°  C.  and   (c)  should  not  be 
greater  than  82°  C. 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.    8i/ 

(3)  Specific  Gravity. — Take  a  quantity  of  trinitrotoluol  and 
melt  up  in  a  dry  basin;  fill  up  a  test-tube  with  the  melted  tri- 
nitrotoluol; suspend  it  in  a  water-bath  filled  with  water  that  is 
kept  at  the  boiling-point.     Place  a  hydrometer  in  the  test-tube, 
leave  it  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  note  the  reading  of  the 
hydrometer  when  the  temperature  of  the  whole  is  at  100°  C. 
The  specific  gravity  in  powdered  form  closely  packed  is  1.55; 
in  melted  form,  1.65. 

(4)  Softening  Test. — Take   5   grams   of    trinitrotoluol    and 
grind  up  fine;  place  in  a  crucible  40  mm.  depth  and  50  mm. 
diameter  at  the  top;  then  place  in  an  oven  and  keep  the 
temperature  at  70°  C.  for  one  hour.     The  sample  should  not 
soften. 

(5)  Staining  Test. — Grind  a  small  quantity  of  trinitrotoluol 
finely  and  place  on  a  sheet  of  clean  white  paper,  keep  for  24 
hours;   the  paper  should  show  no  stain. 

(6)  Ash.— Weigh  a  small  crucible  and  put  in  about  8  grams 
of  trinitrotoluol;    heat  the  trinitrotoluol  gently  until  it  has 
all  burned  away;    then  heat  strongly  for  about  15  minutes, 
cool,  weigh,  and  again  heat  till  the  weight  is  constant. 

(7)  Heat-test. — Weigh  2  grams  of  trinitrotoluol  and  grind 
up  fine;  place  in  a  clean  dry  test-tube  and  apply  the  potassium- 
iodide  heat  test.     No  color  should  appear  for  30  minutes. 

(8)  Acidity. — Boil  in  a  porcelain  basin  some  distilled  water; 
weigh  25  grams  of  trinitrotoluol;    place  it  in  the  basin  and 
allow  to  boil  for  a  few  minutes,  stirring  up  well.     Then  allow 
to  cool  and  keep  stirring  till  the  trinitrotoluol  is  solid;    then 

N 

add  a  little  phenolphthalein,  and  titrate  with  ^    caustic  soda 

luu 

till  just  neutral.     From  the  data  obtained,  the  sulphuric  acid 
in  100  grams  of  the  explosive  may  be  calculated. 


Sig  NOTES   ON   MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


Alcohols,  Ethers,,  Ketones. 

Alcohols  and  alcohol  derivatives  are  used  either  in  the 
manufacture  or  as  ingredients  of  modern  explosives. 

The  alcohols  may  be  regarded  as  formed  from  the  hydro- 
carbons of  the  paraffin  series  by  substituting  the  radical  HO 
for  one  or  more  of  the  hydrogen  atoms.  They  are,  therefore, 
as  already  indicated,  properly  organic  hydroxides  of  the  paraffin 
series.  Some  authorities  consider  all  hydroxides  of  the  hydro- 
carbons as  alcohols,  there  being  a  series  of  alcohols  correspond- 
ing to  each  series  of  hydrocarbons. 

Alcohols  containing  (HO)    are  monohydric; 
(HO)  2  "    dihydric; 
(HO)  3  "    trihydric; 
"  "          etc.       "    etc. 

There  are  but  two  alcohols  proper  which  need  be  described 
in  connection  with  substances  used  in  explosives,  namely, 
monohydric  ethyl  alcohol,  C2H5.HO,  and  trihydric  propenyl 
alcohol  (glycerine),  C3H5(HO)3. 

The  structural  formula  of  ethyl  alcohol  is 


H    H 

-O-H        C2H5.HO; 

I      I 
H    H 


H—  C-C 


of  glycerine: 

H 

H—  C-0—  H 

H—  C—  0—  H         C3H5.(HO)3. 
H—  C—  O—  H 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  8lh 

Two  other  substances  may  be  referred  to  here  as  allied  in 
structure  to  the  alcohols,  in  order  to  emphasize  both  the  rela- 
tion existing  and  the  differences  in  structure. 

1.  Ethyl  ether,  which,  as  before  explained,  is  the  oxide  of 
the  paraffin  hydrocarbon  radical,  C2H5.     Its  molecular  formula 
is  (C2H5)20  and  its  structural  formula  is 
H   H          H   H 


H— C— C— 0-C— C— H 

II  II 

H    H          H   H 

2.  Cellulose. — This  has  a  more  complex  structure.  It  does 
not  fall  strictly  under  the  alcohols  or  ethers,  but  its  chemical 
behavior  leads  to  its  classification  as  a  hexhydric  alcohol. 
Under  this  conception  its  structural  formula,  using  a  double 
grouping,  may  be  written  as  follows: 


H— C— H  H—C—0     i 

H— 0— C— H  H—C—0 

H— 0-C-H  H— C— 0-H 

H— 0— C— II  H— C— 0— H 

0— C— H  H— C— 0— H 


H—  C— 


1     0— C— H    H— C— H 

l  I 


Another  hydrocarbon  derivative  closely  allied  to  the  fore- 
going is  acetone  or  dimethyl  ketone  (CH3.CO.CH3).  The  rela- 
tion is  as  follows: 

Acetic  acid  results  from  the  oxidation  of  alcohol: 

C2H5.HO  +  02  =  CH3.HO.CO +H20. 

1  Quinone  arrangement  suggested  by  Dr.  John  W.  Mallet,  University  of 
Virginia.  See  Walke's  Lectures  on  Explosives,  p.  205. 


82  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Acetone  may  be  considered  as  derived  from  acetic  acid  by 
displacing  the  HO  group  by  a  paraffin  hydrocarbon  radical,  thus: 

acetic  acid:  CH3.CO.HO;    acetone:  CH3.CO.CH3. 

Acetone  is  the  standard  solvent  for  highly  nitrated 
celluloses  used  in  smokeless  powders  containing  nitroglycerine, 
and  ordinary  guncotton  for  demolitions,  etc. 

A  mixture  of  ethyl  alcohol,  (C2H5)HO,  and  ethyl  ether, 
(C2H5)20,  in  the  proportion  by  volume  of  1  to  2  is  used  in  dis- 
solving nitrocellulose  of  medium  nitration  in  the  manufacture 
of  smokeless  powders  that  are  made  of  pure  nitrocellulose 
without  an  admixture  of  nitroglycerine. 

Ethyl  Alcohol.    Vinic  Alcohol.    Alcohol.     C2H5.HO. 

When  mixed  with  water  known  as  spirits  of  wine. 

As  stated  above  this  substance  is  one  of  the  ingredients  of 
the  solvent  used  in  colloiding  nitrocellulose  in  making  smoke- 
less powder. 

It  is  a  colorless  liquid  having  a  characteristic  odor  and 
burning  taste. 

Pure  or  " absolute"  alcohol  has  a  specific  gravity  of  0.794 
at  15°  C.  It  freezes  at  - 130.5°  C.  Its  boiling-point  is  78.3°  C. 
It  burns  with  a  blue  smokeless  flame,  the  reaction  of  com- 
bustion being  as  follows: 

C2H5.HO  +  06  =  2C02  +  SHaO. 

It  evaporates  rapidly  in  the  open  air  without  combining 
with  oxygen.  Exposed  to  the  air  it  absorbs  water.  Bottles 
containing  it  should  therefore  be  tightly  corked.  It  mixes 
with  water  in  all  proportions,  evolving  little  heat  and  giving 
a  mixture  rather  smaller  in  volume  than  the  sum  of  the  volumes 
of  the  constituents. 

Next  to  water  it  is  the  most  universal  solvent.  It  is 
especially  useful  as  a  solvent  of  certain  resins  and  alkaloids 
which  are  insoluble  in  water. 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     83 

To  test  for  alcohol  in  a  liquid,  add  HC1  and  enough  potassium 
dichromate  to  give  an  orange-yellow  color.  Divide  between 
two  test-tubes  for  comparison.  Heat  one  until  the  liquid 
boils.  If  alcohol  is  present,  the  color  will  change  to  green 
and  give  off  odor  of  aldehyd. 

The  strength  of  alcohol  is  usually  determined  by  its  specific 
gravity.  This  may  be  determined  by  using  a  hydrometer  for 
liquids  lighter  than  water,  or  by  weighing  a  few  cubic  centi- 
metres carefully  measured,  the  weight  in  grams  per  cubic 
centimetre  will  be  its  specific  gravity  (1  cubic  centimetre  H20 
at  standard  density  =  1  gram) . 

In  the  commercial  grades,  rectified  spirit  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  0.833  and  contains  84%  of  alcohol;  proof  spirit  has 
a  specific  gravity  of  0.92  and  contains  only  49%  of  alcohol. 
This  is  the  weakest  spirit  that  will  answer  the  old  rough  proof 
of  firing  gunpowder  which  has  been  moistened  with  it. 

Ethyl  Ether,  (C2H5)20. 

May  be  considered  as  derived  from  the  corresponding  alcohol 
by  process  of  dehydration.  Ethyl  ether  is  sometimes  called 
sulphuric  ether,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  prepared  by  distilling  a 
mixture  of  ethyl  alcohol  with  sulphuric  acid  in  the  proportion 
by  volume  of  2  to  1.  The  sulphuric  acid  is  left  unchanged  by 
the  process,  the  reaction  being  apparently  as  follows : 

1.  Production  of  hydro-ethyl  sulphate  (H.C2H5.S04) : 

C2H5.HO  +  H2S04 =C2H5  JLS04  +  H20. 

2.  Production  of  ethyl  ether  heating  with  more  alcohol  at 
140°  C. : 

C2H5.H.S04  *  C2H5.HO  =  (C2H5)  20  +  H2S04. 

The  ethers  as  a  class  are  insoluble  in  water  and  lighter 
and  more  volatile  than  the  corresponding  alcohols.  They  are 
not  as  easily  acted  upon  chemically  by  other  bodies  as 
alcohols  are. 


84  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Ethyl  ether  is  a  very  mobile,  colorless  liquid  with  a  charac- 
teristic odor;  has  specific  gravity  of  0.70  at  15°  C.;  it  boils  at 
34.9°  C.;  evaporates  rapidly  in  air  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
producing  great  cold  and  yielding  a  heavy  vapor  (specific 
gravity  2.59)  which  is  very  inflammable  and  in  unskilled  hands 
is  dangerous.  It  is  very  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  requiring 
10  volumes  of  H20  to  dissolve  1  volume  of  ether.  34  volumes  of 
ether  are  required  to  dissolve  1  volume  of  H20.  But  commer- 
cial ether  contains  alcohol,  and  this  latter  takes  up  considerable 
water.  Ether  and  alcohol  may  be  mixed  in  any  proportion, 
but  the  addition  of  excess  of  water  displaces  the  ether.  Ether 
dissolves  the  nitre-substitution  compounds  and  is  the  great 
solvent  for  fats. 

Acetone,  CH3.CO.CH3.     Dimethyl-ketone. 

Acetone  is  the  solvent  for  cellulose  that  has  been  nitrated  so 
as  to  contain  a  high  percentage  of  nitrogen,  say  12.9%  or  above. 
At  ordinary  temperature  and  pressure  cellulose  so  nitrated  is 
not  soluble  in  the  ether-alcohol  mixture,  but  is  soluble  in  acetone. 
Acetone  is  found  among  the  products  resulting  from  the  dis- 
tillation of  wood.  When  wood  is  distilled,  the  condensed  prod- 
ucts separate  into  two  layers :  the  lower  is  wood-tar,  and  the 
upper  is  a  mixture  of  water,  methyl  alcohol,  acetic  acid,  and 
acetone. 

Acetone  is  a  colorless  liquid  with  characteristic,  pleasant 
odor;  specific  gravity  0.81;  boils  at  56.3°  C. 

It  burns  with  a  bright  flame;  it  evaporates  readily,  and  its 
vapor  is  dangerous  if  mixed  with  air.  It  mixes  with  water, 
alcohol,  and  ether  in  all  proportions.  Adding  KHO  to  its 
aqueous  solution  displaces  it  and  it  rises  to  the  surface.  It 
is  a  good  solvent  for  resins,  camphors,  fats,  guncotton  and  nitro- 
glycerine, and  freely  dissolves  the  nitro-substitution  compounds. 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     85 

Glycerine.      Glyceryl  Hydroxide.     Propenyl  Alcohol. 
C3H5(HO)3. 

Glycerine  is  a  trihydric  alcohol,  having  the  structural 
formula 

H 

H— 0-C— H 
H— 0— C— H 
H— 0— C— H 
H. 

It  may  be  obtained  from  all  fats  and  is  the  sweet  principle 
of  them.  Fats  are  sometimes  called  glycerides. 

Glycerine  is  also  formed  as  a  by-product  in  the  alcoholic 
fermentation  of  grape-sugar,  and  is  present  in  small  quantities 
in  beer  and  wine.  It  is  a  by-product  also  in  the  manufacture 
of  soaps  and  candles,  being  separated  in  the  mother-liquor  when 
fats  are  saponified  by  lime  or  superheated  steam.  The  cruae 
glycerine  resulting  from  these  processes  is  purified  by  distillation. 
A  quantity  of  crude  glycerine  is  placed  in  a  copper  still,  ana 
steam  at  280°  C.  is  forced  through  it.  The  pure  glycerine  is 
volatilized,  passes  over,  and  is  condensed. 

Glycerine  is  a  colorless  sirupy  liquid,  its  viscosity  increas- 
ing as  the  temperature  is  lowered.  Although  it  is  a  viscous 
liquid,  it  has  the  property  of  working  its  way  by  capillary  actipn 
through  the  smallest  openings  or  fissures.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  1.269  at  12°  C.;  it  boils  at  290°  C.,  but  then  undergoes  partial 
decomposition;  it  is  slightly  volatile  at  100°  C.,  but  not  at 
ordinary  temperatures.  Glycerine  crystals  may  be  obtained 
from  an  aqueous  solution  kept  for  some  time  at  0°  C.  Pure 
glycerine  solidifies  at  —40°  C.,  forming  a  gummy  mass.  It 
ignites  at  150°  C.  in  air,  burning  with  a  faint  blue  flame  resem- 
bling that  of  alcohol.  It  absorbs  water  readily  from  the  air 


86  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

It  mixes  with  water  and  alcohol  in  all  proportions.  It  is  in- 
soluble in  ether,  but  is  soluble  in  ether-alcohol  mixtures.  It 
is  soluble  in  carbon  disulphide,  petroleum,  benzene,  chloroform. 
Glycerine  is  one  of  the  most  important  solvents,  dissolving 
most  substances  which  are  soluble  in  water,  and  some  others, 
such  as  some  metallic  oxides,  which  are  not. 

The  best  test  of  identifying  glycerine  is  to  mix  it  with  KHS04 
and  heat  it  strongly,  when  the  unpleasant  odor  of  acrolein 
(odor  of  smouldering  candles)  is  noticed. 

Its  importance  in  explosives  results  from  the  fact  that  it 
forms  nitroglycerine  when  acted  upon  by  nitric  acid. 


Cellulose,  C6H1005  or  n(C6H1005). 

Cellulose  is  by  far  the  most  important  substance  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  the  new  explosives.  It  is  the  source  from 
which  guncotton  and  most  of  the  smokeless  powders  are 
derived. 

As  already  stated,  the  most  recent  practice  classifies  cellu- 
lose as  a  hexhydric  alcohol,  although  its  molecule  has  not  the 
simple  structure  of  the  alcohol  series. 

Captain  Willoughby  Walke,  Artillery  Corps,  on  page  205  of 
his  Lectures  on  Explosives,  gives  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  John 
W.  Mallet,  the  celebrated  chemist  of -the  University  of  Virginia, 
that  only  three  atoms  of  hydrogen  are  grouped  in  the  hydroxyl 
radical,  the  fourth  hydrogen  atom  being  united  directly  to  the 
carbon  atom,  while  the  corresponding  oxygen  atom  and  the 
remaining  free  oxygen  atom  are  linked  together  with  the  same 
carbon  atoms  after  the  manner  of  grouping  of  oxygen  atoms 
in  quinone,  thus : 


-U 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     87 

If  tnis  be  adopted,  the  cellulose  molecule  may  be  written 
as  follows  for  the  double  molecule : 


I  I 

H— C— H—    H-C— 0 


:— c— o 


H— 0— C— H        H- 

H— 0— C— H        H— C-O-H 

H— 0-C-H        H— C— 0— H 

I  I 

0— C— H        H— C— 0— H 

I      I  I 

0— C— H        H— C— H. 

I I 

The   formula   for    the   single    molecule    C6Hi005   may   be 
arranged  after  the  plan  of  the  quinone  group,  thus: 

(HO) 
C 


(HO)— C— H    H— C— 0 

I  I      I 

(HO)— C— H    H— C— O 

/ 

V 
c 


A  cellulose  ring  may  be  written  composed  of  any  number  of 
groups  of  this  type  of  arrangement.  It  should  be  understood, 
however,  that  this  arrangement  of  the  cellulose  molecule  is 
theoretical  and  of  value  only  in  so  far  as  it  agrees  with 
observed  chemical  facts. 


88 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


The  group   5(C6H1005)  would   be   written   structurally  as 
follows: 


Cellulose  is  the  constituent  of  the  cell- walls  of  all  plants. 
When  the  soluble  ingredients  of  all  forms  of  vegetable  life 
and  mineral  substances  are  removed,  cellulose  remains  as 
a  white,  opaque,  organized  structure.  White  filter-paper, 
cotton  wool,  and  pure  linen  fibre  are  familiar  examples  of 
cellulose. 

It  is  infusible;  insoluble  in  all  ordinary  solvents.  It  is  dis- 
solved by  "Schweitzer's  Reagent  "  (a  solution  of  cupric  hydrox- 
ide in  ammonia) ;  it  is  precipitated  from  this  solution  by  adding 
an  acid. 

Cellulose  subjected  to  heat  alone,  as  in  destructive  distilla- 
tion, breaks  up  into  organic  volatile  compounds,  especially  into 
certain  organic  acids,  such  as : 


SUBSTANCES  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.    89 

0 
Formic:       H— 0— C— H 

0    H 

II      I 
Acetic:        H— 0— C— C— H 

I 
H 

0    H  H 

II      I      I 
Propionic:  H— 0— C— C— C— H 

I 
H    H 

0    H    H    H 
Butyric :      H— 0— C— C  — C  — C  — H 

I      I     ! 

H    H    H 

Strong  sulphuric  acid  acts  on  dry  cellulose,  converting  it 
into  a  gummy  mass  which  dissolves  in  the  cold  in  an  excess  of 
the  acid  with  very  little  color. 

Unsized  paper  immersed  in  a  cold  mixture  of  strong  sul- 
phuric acid  with  one-half  its  volume  of  water  converts  the 
cellulose  into  a  tenacious  translucent  substance  called  amyloid. 
A  strong  solution  of  zinc  chloride  affects  cellulose  in  the  same 
way.  This  property  is  made  use  of  in  manufacturing  vegetable 
parchment,  shipping-tags,  cartridge  paper,  etc.;  it  increases  the 
strength  of  paper  about  five  times  and  makes  it  water  proof. 

Cellulose  left  in  a  bath  of  sulphuric  acid  (specific  gravity 
1.453)  or  in  hydrochloric  acid  (specific  gravity  1.16)  for  12 
hours  is  converted  into  a  brittle  mass  of  hydrocellulose 
(Ci2H2oOio.H20)  which  is  more  easily  oxidized  than  cellulose 
and  is  soluble  in  a  hot  solution  of  potassium  hydroxide.  This  is 
made  use  of  in  separating  cotton  from  old  fabrics  (rags)  of 
cotton  and  wool  mixed;  the  wool  remaining  is  called  shoddy. 


90  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Dry-rot  in  wood  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  a  similar 
change. 

The  action  of  nitric  acid  on  cellulose  will  be  described  later, 
in  connection  with  the  manufacture  of  guncotton  and  smokeless 
powders. 

Liquefied  chlorine  or  bromine,  or  a  mixture  of  these  two 
elements,  have  been  used  as  charges  for  steel  shells  and  hand 
grenades  in  the  European  war.  The  shells  on  striking  are 
exploded  by  percussion,  and  the  liberated  liquefied  gases  vapor- 
ize as  soon  as  released  from  pressure,  causing  great  pain  to  all 
exposed  membranous  surfaces  such  as  the  eyes  and  the  breathing 
organs.  (See  page  370,  Appendix  III). 


III. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  EXPLOSIVES. 

As  a  matter  of  practical  military  interest,  explosives  may 
be  divided  into  three  classes,  namely: 

1.  Progressive  or  propelling  explosives.     (Low  explosives.) 

2.  Detonating  or  disruptive  explosives.     (High  explosives.) 

3.  Detonators  or  exploders.     (Fulminates.) 

The  first  includes  all  classes  of  gunpowders  used  in  fire- 
arms of  all  kinds;  the  second,  explosives  used  in  shell, 
torpedoes,  and  for  demolitions  of  all  kinds;  the  third,  those 
explosives  used  to  originate  explosive  reactions1  in  the  first 
two  classes. 

Each  of  these  classes  is  distinguished  by  the  character 
of  the  explosive  phenomenon  it  produces,  and  it  may  be 
said  that,  corresponding  to  these  respective  characteristics, 
explosive  phenomena  may  be  divided  into  three  classes, 
namely : — 

1.  Explosions  proper:  explosions  of  low  order;  progressive 
explosions;  combustion. 

2-  Detonations:   explosions  of  high  order. 

3-  Fulminations :    the  characteristic  type  of  explosion  pro- 
duced by  the  fulminates,  possessing  exceptional  brusqueness. 

1  An  explosive  reaction  is  a  chemical  reaction  usually  involving  the  change 
of  state  of  a  substance  from  a  solid  or  liquid  to  a  gas,  attended  with  great 
increase  of  volume,  or  the  combination  chemically  of  two  or  more  gases  with 
sudden  increase  of  volume. 

91 


92  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Explosion  Proper.     (Explosion  of  Low  Order.     Progressive 
Explosion.) 

As  the  heading  implies,  this  class  of  explosion  is  marked  by 
more  or  less  progression;  the  time  element  is  involved  as  a 
controlling  factor,  the  time  required  to  complete  the  explo- 
sive reaction  being  large  compared  with  that  in  the  other 
forms  of  explosion.  In  this  class  of  explosion  the  time  con- 
sumed in  the  reaction  is  to  some  extent  under  control  by  vary- 
ing the  physical  characteristics  'of  the  explosive.  The  explo- 
sion, indeed,  is  of  the  nature  of  an  ordinary  combustion.  The 
mass  is  ignited  at  one  point  and  the  reaction  proceeds  pro- 
gressively over  the  exterior  surfaces  and  then  perpendicularly 
to  these  surfaces  until  the  entire  mass  is  consumed. 

The  explosion  of  a  charge  of  black,  brown,  or  smokeless 
powder  is  not  different  in  principle  from  the  burning  of  a  piece 
of  coal,  wood,  or  other  combustible ;  there  is  a  progressive  changa 
of  state  from  particle  to  particle,  from  the  solid  state  to  the 
gaseous  state,  accompanied  by  the  heat  due  to  the  chemical 
change. 

The  word  "  combustion  "  as  used  above  has  a  definite  meaning. 
It  is  the  combination  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  a  combustible 
with  oxygen.  The  calorific  value  of  a  combustible  is  the  num- 
ber of  units  of  heat  involved  in  its  combustion.1  This  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  time  involved;  it  is  the  same  whether  the 
change  takes  place  in  a  fraction  of  a  second  or  is  prolonged 
through  years;  a  pound  of  wood  will  give  the  same  number 
of  units  of  heat  whether  it  be  burned  as  fine  shavings  or 
pass  into  the  gaseous  state  through  slow  oxidation  in  the  air. 
Calorific  intensity  is  the  maximum  possible  temperature  of 
the  products  of  combustion.2  Its  numerical  value  is  determined 

1  Unit  of  heat  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  a  pound  of  water 
from  0°  C.  to  1°  C.,  or  from  32°  F.  to  33°  F. 

2  It  may  be  defined  as  the  temperature  to  which  the  heat  generated  by 
the  burning  of  each  portion  of  the  fuel  can  raise  its  own  products  of  com- 
bustion when  burned  in  its  own  volume  without  loss  of  heat  due  to  conduc- 
tion or  radiation. 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  EXPLOSIVES.  93 

by  dividing  the  total  number  of  units  of  heat  produced  by  the 
number  of  units  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  products  1°  C.  at 
the  temperature  of  these  products. 

It   may   be   represented   in   the   form   of  an  equation  as- 
follows : 

Let  H  =  total  number  of  units  of  heat  produced; 

W,    } 

W 

'    \  =  weights  of  products  of  combustion; 

'  I 
etc.,  J 

S      } 
'         -heat  required  to  raise  1  unit  of  weight  1°  C.  at  the 

'     }•         temperature    and    pressure    of    the    products  =• 

specific  heats  of  products; 
etc.,  j 

T     =  calorific  intensity. 
Then 

H 


T  = 


WS  +  W'S'  +  W"S"  +  etc. 


The  heat  of  combustion  is  due  chiefly — 

1.  To  H  burning  to  H20. 

2.  To  C  burning  to  CO,  in  limited  supply  of  oxygen. 

3.  To  C  burning  to  C02,  in  unlimited  supply  of  oxygen. 
The  calorific  value  of  most  substances  may  be  estimated 

approximately  from  the  molecular  composition,  by  determining 
the  number  of  atoms  of  C  and  H  that  are  free  to  combine  with  0. 
In  some  combustibles,  as  in  the  carbohydrates,  part  of  the  0  is 
present  in  association  with  H  in  the  molecule  in  the  proportion 
found  in  the  water  molecule  (H20)  and  no  heat  results  from 
these  atoms;  indeed,  on  the  contrary,  heat  is  absorbed  in  the 
physical  change  of  state  of  this  water  to  vapor.  Water  held 
mechanically  in  the  pores  or  intermolecular  spaces  of  substances 
must  be  treated  in  the  same  way.  It  requires  537  units  of  heat 


94  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

to  convert  one  pound  of  water  at  100°  C.  into  one  pound  of  steam 
at  100°  C.  This  is  the  latent  heat  of  evaporation  or  condensa- 
tion. To  evaporate  9  pounds  of  water  (containing  1  pound  of 
H)  at  100°  C.  requires  537x9  =  4833  units  of  heat.  Eight 
pounds  of  0  combine  with  1  pound  of  H  to  produce  9  pounds 
of  water-vapor  at  100°  C.,  and,  in  doing  so,  produce  29,629 
units  of  heat.  This  is  the  calorific  value  of  hydrogen  when  the 
products  are  in  the  state  of  vapor.  If  this  water-vapor  be  con- 
densed to  liquid  water  at  100°  C.,  the  latent  heat  of  condensa- 
tion must  be  added  to  this,  and  the  calorific  value  of  hydrogen 
when  the  product  is  in  the  form  of  liquid  water  at  100°  C.  is 
29,629+4833  =  34,462  units  of  heat.  In  the  same  manner  H 
pounds  of  0  combining  with  1  pound  of  C  produces  2481  units  of 
heat  in  burning  to  CO ;  f  f  pounds  of  0  combining  with  1  pound 
of  C  produces  8080  units  of  heat  in  burning  to  C02. 

If  the  weights  and  specific  heats  of  the  products  of  com- 
bustion are'  known,  it  is  possible  to  compute  the  maximum 
possible  temperature  developed  in  an  explosive  reaction. 

The  specific  heats  of  gases  which  constitute  the  chief 
products  of  combustion  in  explosions  vary  with  the  tempera- 
ture and  pressure,  and  their  values  at  high  temperatures  and 
pressures  are  not  known  accurately. 

Temperature  and  pressure  are  both  dependent  on  the  space 
in  which  the  reaction  takes  place.  In  a  restricted  space, 
like  the  chamber  of  a  gun,  both  the  temperature  and  pressure 
rise  very  high,  and  as  a  result  of  the  high  temperature  the 
phenomenon  of  dissociation  may  occur;  that  is,  the  elements 
may  separate  by  a  physical  process  due  to  the  weakening  of  the 
molecular  bonds  by  the  action  of  the  high  heat.1  The  effect 
of  this  "dissociation"  is  to  reduce  temperature.  The  motion 
of  the  projectile  in  the  gun,  enlarging  the  volume,  will  reduce 
pressure  and  temperature.  The  result  is,  at  a  certain  stage 
of  the  lowering  of  both  temperature  and  pressure,  chemical 
combination  again  takes  place  and  the  heat  due  to  this  tends 

1  Oxygen  and  hydrogen  at  atmospheric  pressure  separate  at  2800°  C. 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  EXPLOSIVES.  95 

to  increase  the  pressure.  The  phenomenon  of  dissociation 
occurs  in  the  first  instants  of  explosions;  the  phenomenon  of 
recombination  in  the  later  instants. 

Heat  thus  may  be  the  cause  of  directly  resolving  a  sub- 
stance into  its  component  parts;  if  the  body  is  reformed  upon 
the  lowering  of  the  temperature,  the  phenomenon  is  dissociation; 
if  not  reformed,  it  is  decomposition. 

When  a  body  is  disintegrated  by  heat  in  a  confined  space, 
some  of  the  products  being  gaseous,  the  disintegration  proceeds 
until  the  gas  or  vapor  liberated  has  attained  a  certain  pressure, 
greater  or  less  according  to  the  temperature.  No  further  dis- 
integration then  takes  place,  nor  will  the  separated  elements 
combine  so  long  as  that  particular  temperature  and  pressure  are 
maintained.  If  the  temperature  be  raised,  disintegration  will 
be  resumed  until  some  higher  limiting  pressure  is  produced; 
if  the  temperature  be  lowered,  combination  will  take  place 
until  a  certain  lower  pressure  is  attained;  if  the  temperature 
remain  constant  and  the  pressure  be  increased,  combination 
will  take  place;  if  lowered,  disintegration.  The  amount  of 
dissociation  is  definite  in  all  cases  for  the  same  substance  and 
the  same  condition  of  temperature  and  pressure. 

This  action  is  not  limited  to  compound  substances,  but  is 
believed  to  take  place  with  the  molecules  of  the  elements; 
that  is,  the  molecules  of  multi-atom  molecules  may  be  disso- 
ciated by  heat  into  their  separate  atoms. 


Detonation.     (Explosion  of  High  Order.) 

The  second  class  of  explosion  is  of  a  different  nature.  The 
explosive  reaction  is  not  confined  to  the  surfaces  exposed,  but 
appears  to  progress  in  all  directions  throughout  the  mass, 
radially,  from  the  point  of  initial  explosion;  it  appears  to  pass 
from  the  molecules  at  the  initial  point  to  those  adjacent,  and 
from  these  to  the  next  adjacent,  and  so  on,  throughout  the 
body,  at  a  very  rapid  rate.  Apparently  the  atomic  bonds  of 


96  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

the  initial  molecules  are  disrupted  by  the  molecular  energy 
or  blow  at  the  initial  point;  this  breaking  up  of  the  initial 
molecules  is  transmitted  by  a  wave-like  action  known  as  the 
explosive  wave,  extending  throughout  the  body,  the  initial  dis- 
ruptive energy  being  transmitted  from  molecule  to  molecule, 
and  these,  in  succession,  giving  way,  the  nascent  atoms  thereof 
combining  according  to  the  newly  existing  affinities  which  yield 
mostly  gaseous  substances. 

The  effect  is  to  transform  the  explosive  in  an  almost  inap- 
preciably brief  time  from  the  solid  or  liquid  state  to  the  gaseous 
state,  the  gases  being  greatly  increased  in  volume  and  pressure 
by  the  heat  of  combination  attending  the  reaction.  It  has 
been  determined  experimentally  that  the  velocity  of  propaga- 
tion of  the  explosive  wave  throughout  a  mass  of  guncotton  is 
from  17,000  to  21,000  feet  per  second. 

The  calorific  value  and  calorific  intensity  of  disruptive 
explosives  may  be  determined  as  explained  for  progressive 
explosives,  the  combination  between  oxygen  and  carbon  and 
hydrogen  having  the  same  heat  value  regardless  of  the  form 
of  explosion. 

The  phenomena  of  dissociation  and  combination  may  take 
place  in  the  products  of  this  type  of  explosion,  also,  giving  rise 
to  a  more  prolonged  explosive  blow  than  in  the  case  of  the  explo- 
sion of  fulminates. 

Fulmination. 

This  class  of  explosion  is  still  more  brusque  than  the  last. 
It  is  like  the  last  in  that  the  initial  molecule  is  broken  up  by 
the  crushing  effect  of  the  blow  due  to  the  exciting  cause,  and 
the  molecular  energy  thus  applied  is  transmitted  by  the  disrup- 
tion of  the  first  molecules  to  those  adjacent,  and  these  to  the 
next,  and  so  on  throughout  the  mass. 

The  characteristic  feature  of  this  form  of  explosion  is  the 
absence  of  dissociation.  The  gases  are  evolved  in  such  a  simple 
form  that  there  is  little  or  no  dissociation  and  the  new  affinities 


GENERAL  REMARKS   ON  EXPLOSIVES.  97 

do  not  invite  chemical  combination.  The  explosive  blow  is 
thus  not  prolonged  by  these  phenomena,  and  is  therefore  rela- 
tively much  sharper  than  in  the  last  class. 

The  heat  of  the  first  phase  of  the  explosion  is  also  very 
great,  tending  in  itself  to  increase  the  sharpness  and  energy  of 
the  blow  on  the  initial  molecules. 

A  brusque  explosive  blow  such  as  described  is  thought  to 
have  the  effect  of  breaking  up  the  molecular  bonds  of  explo- 
sive molecules,  and  thereby  initiating  an  explosive  wave  through- 
out the  mass  of  the  explosive.  With  progressive  powders,  it 
would  be  effective  in  initiating  the  explosion,  but  there  would  not, 
in  ordinary  cases,  be  an  explosive  wave.  It  is  this  property  of 
initiating  detonation  and  explosion  which  gives  rise  to  the  use  of 
the  detonators  or  exploders.  They  are  used  in  caps  and  primers 
of  all  kinds;  the  abruptness  of  their  explosion,  and  the  con- 
sequent sharpness  of  the  blow  and  the  concentration  of  heat 
on  the  point  of  ignition,  constituting  their  efficiency  as  origi- 
nators of  explosions  of  the  first  two  classes. 

In  all  cases,  explosions  are  attended  by  a  sudden  and  large 
increase  of  volume  of  the  substances  which  constitute  the  ex- 
plosive. Generally  there  is  also  evolution  of  heat;  always  so 
when  due  to  chemical  reaction  in  the  first  phase  of  the  explosion, 
and  recombination  after  dissociation  in  the  later  phase. 

An  explosion  due  to  physical  causes  alone,  as  when  com- 
pressed air  is  released,  causes  cold;  the  firing  of  the  pneumatic 
gun  produces  so  much  cold  as  to  cause  the  condensation  of  the 
water- vapor  in  the  air  of  the  charge  as  it  leaves  the  muzzle  of 
the  gun. 


IV. 
PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES. 

Progressive  explosives  may  be  considered  under  the  two 
headings : 

1.  Charcoal  powders. 

2.  Nitrocellulose  powders. 

CHARCOAL    POWDERS. 

These  may  be  divided  into: 

1.  Black  charcoal  powder,  or  black  powder. 

2.  Brown  charcoal  powder,  or  brown  powder. 
Brown  charcoal  powder  is  now  obsolete.    Black  charcoal 

powder  is  used  chiefly  for  saluting  purposes  and  as  an 
igniter  for  nitrocellulose  powders,  also  in  fuses  and  as  mealed 
powder  in  primers. 

Black  Powder. 

In  the  manufacture  of  black  powder,  fully  charred  black 
charcoal  is  used.  The  wood  is  charred  at  about  350°  C. 

Charcoal  charred  at  this  temperature  contains  about  76 
parts  by  weight  of  pure  carbon,  4  parts  of  hydrogen,  19  parts 
of  oxygen,  and  1  part  of  ash. 

The  ingredients  of  black  powder  are,  besides  pulverized 
charcoal,  pulverized  sulphur  and  pulverized  nitre.  The  pro- 
portion in  which  these  ingredients  are  mixed  is  about  as  follows : 

75  parts  by  weight  of  nitre; 
15     "      "       ".      "  charcoal; 
10     "     '"       "      "  sulphur. 

Variations  from  these  proportions  occur  in  different  coun- 
tries, but  the  differences  are  insignificant. 

98 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES.  99 

The  ingredients  are  purified  as  a  preliminary  step.  They 
each  are  then  pulverized  by  grinding. 

The  charcoal  is  ground  in  a  machine  resembling  a  large  coffee- 
mill.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  vertical  metal  cone,  having  teeth 
placed  spirally  on  its  surface.  This  revolves  within  a  vertical 
cylinder,  having  teeth  projecting  inwardly  and  arranged  spirally, 
inclining  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  teeth  on  the  cone. 
These  teeth  are  susceptible  of  adjustment,  so  that  the  clearance 
between  the  two  sets  may  be  increased  or  decreased.  By  this 
means  the  degree  of  fineness  of  the  ground  charcoal  is  regulated. 

The  sulphur  and  nitre  are  ground  in  a  machine  resembling 
a  mortar-mill.  It  consists  of  a  pair  of  circular  edge-rollers, 
travelling  around  a  strong,  circular  cast-iron  bed,  revolving  at 
the  same  time  on  their  axes.  The  rollers  are  about  4  feet  in 
diameter  and  weigh  about  3000  pounds.  They  are  placed 
at  different  distances  from  the  centre  of  motion,  so  that  each 
passes  over  the  cast-iron  bed  on  a  separate  path,  one  being  just 
inside  of  the  other.  The  two  rollers  have  a  common  horizontal 
shaft  about  which  they  turn.  At  a  point  on  this  horizontal 
shaft,  nearer  one  roller  than  the  other,  is  a  vertical  spindle, 
which  is  geared  below  to  the  driving-train  of  machinery,  so  as 
to  give  a  motion  to  both  rollers  about  this  spindle.  The  nitre 
or  sulphur  is  spread  evenly  over  the  bed,  about  1  to  2  inches 
thick,  and  motion  given  to  the  rollers.  They  move  over  the 
material,  and  in  a  few  minutes  it  is  reduced  to  a  fine  powder. 
A  scraper  follows  behind  each  roller,  and  is  so  formed  as  to 
throw  the  material  under  the  next  following  roller. 

After  grinding  the  charcoal,  nitre,  and  sulphur,  each  is 
passed  through  a  separate  sijting^reel.  This  sifting-reel  consists 
of  a  frame  cylinder  covered  with  wire  cloth,  32  meshes  to  the 
inch.  The  ground  materials  pass  through  the  interior  of  this 
reel,  which  revolves  slowly.  The  fine  particles  suitable  for 
powders  pass  through  the  meshes  and  fall  into  a  bin.  The 
coarser  particles  pass  through  the  reel,  are  received  in  a  barrel 
at  the  lower  end,  and  are  taken  back  to  the  grinding-mill  for 
regrinding.  / 


loo  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

The  sifted  materials  are  weighed  out  very  carefully  in  50- 
pound  lots,  in  the  relative  proportions  given  above  (75  parts  of 
nitre,  15  parts  of  charcoal,  and  10  parts  of  sulphur),  and  placed 
in  bags.  The  contents  of  three  bags  constitute  a  charge  for  the 
mixing-machine. 

The  mixing-machine  consists  of  a  copper  drum  mounted  on 
a  horizontal  shaft.  The  drum  has  a  capacity  of  about  150  Ibs. 
of  the  mixed  materials.  It  revolves  at  about  35  revolutions  per 
minute.  The  shaft  of  the  drum  is  hollow,  and  through  this 
passes  a  second  shaft,  which  carries  a  series  of  arms  or  "  flyers  " 
on  the  interior  of  the  drum.  These  arms  are  flat,  with  forked 
ends,  and  just  clear  the  interior  surface  of  the  drum.  They 
revolve  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  drum  at  about  70 
revolutions  per  minute. 

Three  bags  of  the  ingredients  are  emptied  into  the  drum, 
the  machine  set  in  motion,  and  the  mixing  is  completed  in  five 
minutes. 

The  mixed  ingredients  are  allowed  to  fall  through  a  chute 
into  a  tub,  carefully  examined  to  see  that  the  mixing  is  regular, 
placed  in  bags,  and  tied  very  compactly.  These  bags  are  laid 
on  their  sides  to  prevent,  in  so  far  as  possible,  the  tendency  of 
the  ingredients  to  separate  in  layers  according  to  their  specific 
gravities;  when  necessary  to  handle  the  bags,  it  should  be  done 
carefully  and  without  jarring  or  shaking,  for  the  same  reason. 

The  mixed  ingredients  are  next  taken  to  the  incorporating 
mill,  to  be  put  through  the  process  of  incorporation.  This  is  the 
most  important  process  in  the  manufacture  of  charcoal  powder. 
Its  object  is  to  bring  the  ingredients  into  the  closest  possible 
contact,  so  that  each  particle  of  the  resulting  cake  shall  be 
composed  of  the  three  ingredients  in  proper  proportion. 

The  incorporating  mill  is  of  the  edge-roller  type,  like  the 
sulphur  and  nitre  grinding-mills,  except  more  massive;  the 
rollers  are  about  6.5  feet  in  diameter,  15  inches  wide,  and  weigh 
about  4  tons  each. 

The  mixed  ingredients  from  the  mixing-machine  are  spread 
evenly  over  the  bed  of  the  incorporating  mill;  it  should  not  be 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES*  f.c* 

thicker  than  0.5  inch  nor  less  than  0.25  inch:  if  thicker  than 
0.5  inch,  the  incorporation  is  defective;  if  less  than  0.25  inch 
thick,  there  is  clanger  of  explosion. 

After  the  charge  has  been  spread  over  the  bed,  it  is  mois- 
tened with  from  4  to  8  pints  of  distilled  water,  depending  on 
the  state  of  the  atmosphere.  Greatest  care  must  be  exercised 
by  the  attendant  in  regulating  the  water,  as  the  nature  of  the 
product  depends  very  much  on  uniformity  in  the  amount  of 
moisture  present. 

It  requires  from  3  to  4  hours  to  incorporate  a  charge.  The 
incorporated  mass  is  called  mill-cake.  It  should  have  a  uniform 
blackish-gray  color,  without  any  white  or  yellow  specks.  A 
small  amount  of  it  flashed  on  a  plate  should  burn  smoothly,  at 
the  proper  rate,  and  give  little  residue. 

The  incorporated  powder,  in  the  form  of  soft  mill-cake,  is 
put  into  open  tubs  and  placed  in  small  magazines,  where  it  is 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air,  so  that  all  workings  may  either 
absorb  or  give  off  water-vapor  and  come  to  about  the  same 
percentage  of  hygroscopic  water  present;  2  to  3  per  cent  of 
water  in  the  mass  is  necessary  to  give  good  results  in  the  sub- 
sequent pressing. 

In  so  far  as  the  chemical  requirements  for  combustion  are 
concerned,  the  powder  is  now  completed.  The  subsequent  opera- 
tions have  for  their  object  the  production  of  certain  physical 
effects,  depending  upon  the  use  to  which  the  powder  is  to  be 
put.  In  order  that  its  rate  of  burning  may  be  regulated,  the 
size  and  density  and  form  of  the  grains  must  be  fixed. 

Before  being  pressed,  the  mill-cake  is  broken  into  lumps 
of  uniform  size,  in  a  machine  called  the  breaking-down  machine. 
This  machine  consists  essentially  of  two  pairs  of  grooved  cylin- 
ders arranged  one  pair  above  the  other.  These  cylinders  are  so 
placed  on  shafts,  and  are  so  geared,  that  they  have  motions 
downward  between  each  pair.  The  clearance  between  the 
cylinders,  and  the  dimensions  of  the  grooves,  are  adjusted  to 
the  nature  of  the  cake,  and,  for  safety  purposes,  the  clearance 
may  be  automatically  increased  by  the  action  of  a  sliding-bearing 


103  MOrfiS  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

of  one  of  each  set  of  cylinders,  which  allows  this  cylinder  to 
move  back  in  case  the  cake  is  fed  to  the  rollers  too  rapidly, 
or  a  hard  lump  happens  to  pass  through.  The  hopper  of  the 
breaking-down  machine  takes  about  700  Ibs.  of  mill-cake.  It 
is  open  below,  resting  on  a  continuous  canvas  belt  with  cleats, 
which,  as  it  moves,  feeds  the  mill-cake  to  the  top  set  of  cylinders. 
After  passing  through  these,  the  cake  falls  between  the  second 
set  of  cylinders  and  then  into  suitable  box-cars  or  trucks.  It 
requires  about  a  half-hour  to  break  down  a  charge  of  700  pounds. 
The  product  of  the  breaking-down  machine  is  called  powder- 
meal.  It  is  stored  again  for  several  days,  so  as  to  equalize  the 
moisture,  and  is  then  ready  for  pressing. 

In  order  that  the  powder  may  be  granulated,  it  is  first 
pressed  into  solid  compact  cakes,  called  the  press-cakes.  These 
are  formed  by  hydraulic  pressure,  applied  to  powder-meal 
placed  between  gun-metal  plates,  in  a  large,  strong,  gun-metal 
box.  The  press-box  is  laid  on  its  side,  and  the  upper  side 
removed;  the  metal  separating-plates  are  inserted;  the  meal 
is  filled  in  between  the  plates,  the  space  between  plates  being 
about  f  of  an  inch :  the  box  is  then  placed  under  the  head  of  an 
hydraulic  ram  and  pressure  applied.  The  plates  are  free  to 
move  under  the  applied  pressure  and  compress  the  powder-meal 
to  a  hard,  compact  cake. 

The  press-cake  is  broken  up  into  grains  by  passing  through 
the  granulating-machine.  This  consists  of  a  series  of  pairs  of 
gun-metal  cylinders,  with  teeth  of  suitable  size  and  suitably 
placed  on  the  surfaces  of  the  cylinders.  The  press-cake  passes 
between  these  rollers,  and  is  broken  into  grains  of  various  sizes. 
There  is  a  screen  under  each  pair  of  rollers,  to  catch  the  broken 
press-cake  and  to  conduct  it  to  the  next  set  of  rollers.  The 
sizes  of  the  breaking-down  teeth,  and  of  the  screen-meshes,  are 
altered  to  suit  the  special  requirements  of  any  particular  granu- 
lation that  may  be  desired. 

The  sharp  corners  of  grains  are  worn  off  and  the  dust  sepa- 
rated from  any  grade  of  grained  powder  by  the  dusting-machine. 
This  consists  of  horizontal  cylindrical  frames,  covered  with 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES.  103 

canvas,  having  24  meshes  to  the  inch.  Several  barrels  of  foul 
grain  are  put  in  the  cylinders,  and  the  latter  set  to  revolving  at 
about  40  revolutions  per  minute.  In  about  half  an  hour  the 
process  is  completed,  the  powder  dust  havmg  passed  through 
the  meshes  of  the  canvas. 

At  the  end  of  the  process,  the  powder  is  collected  in  barrels. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  repeat  the  dusting  once  or  twice 
before  the  powder  is  sufficiently  free  of  dust. 

Some  powders  are  glazed.  The  grains  are  put  into  a  hori- 
zontal, barrel-like  receptacle,  and  revolved  for  5  to  6  hours 
with  a  small  quantity  of  pulverized  graphite  The  object  of 
this  is,  to  make  the  powder  less  liable  to  form  dust  in  storage 
and  transportation,  and  to  protect  the  grains  to  some  extent 
from  the  effects  of  moisture  in  the  air. 

The  final  operation  is  to  remove  excess  of  moisture  from  the 
powder  by  drying.  The  powder  is  spread  out  over  shallow 
canvas-bottom  frames,  arranged  in  tiers,  over  a  steam  radiator, 
and  is  subjected  to  a  temperature  of  130°  F.  for  16  to  18  hours. 
After  standing  for  2  to  3  hours  to  allow  it  to  cool,  it  is  run 
through  a  dusting-reel  and  then  packed. 

Usually  black  powder  is  packed  in  100-pound  packages.  The 
receptacles  are,  as  a  rule,  either  wooden  barrels  or  metal  canis- 
ters. If  wooden  barrels  are  used,  the  wood  is  oak  and  the 
hoops  are  made  of  some  wood,  like  cedar,  not  liable  to  become 
worm-eaten.  Zinc-lined  boxes  have  also  been  used.  These 
boxes  are  often  arranged  to  be  hermetically  sealed,  or  are  pro- 
vided with  gasket  covers,  to  protect  the  powder  in  storage 
from  the  moisture  of  the  air. 

Black  gunpowder  should  be  of  even  granulation,  of  good 
hardness  and  density,  free  from  dust.  A  small  quantity  poured 
on  the  back  of  the  hand  should  leave  little  or  no  trace  of  dust; 
when  flashed  in  10-grain  samples  on  a  copper  plate,  there  should 
be  no  bead  or  excessive  residue.  It  should  absorb  little  water 
from  the  air. 


104  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Brown  Powder. 

The  foregoing  description  applies  in  its  essential  features 
to  the  manufacture  of  all  mixtures  of  nitre,  charcoal,  and  sul- 
phur. In  brown  powder,  the  charcoal  is  made  from  rye-straw 
and  is  under-charred.  The  proportions  of  the  ingredients  vary 
some  from  those  given  for  black  powder,  the  proportions  for 
brown  powder  being,1  approximately : 

Nitre 80  parts 

Charcoal 16     " 

Sulphur 3     " 

Moisture 1  part 

100 

This  mixture  is  slower  burning  than  black  powder.  It  has 
been  discontinued  as  a  service  powder  by  the  United  States. 

Granulation  of  Powder. 

The  introduction  of  large-grained,  perforated,  slow- burning 
brown  prismatic  powder  marked  the  last  phase  of  a  long  line 
of  investigation,  begun  in  the  early  sixties  in  the  United  States 
by  the  late  General  T.  J.  Rodman,  Ordnance  Department, 
U.  S.  Army.  Some  reference  may  well  be  made  here  to  those 
series  of  experiments  which,  initiated  by  Rodman,  were  taken 
up  and  extended  by  many  others,  both  in  the  United  States 
and  in  Europe,  especially  as  the  principles  established  thereby 
still  survive  and  apply  to  the  new  powders. 

Rodman  sought  to  increase  the  powers  and  endurance  of 
large  guns  by  controlling  the  combustion  of  powders  used  in 
them.  He  conceived  the  idea  that  there  were  certain  definite 
relations  among  the  elements,  size,  form,  and  density,  that 
would  give  a  best  powder  for  a  given  gun,  that  is,  a  powder 
which  would  give  the  highest  velocity  for  a  given  pressure;  or, 
stated  in  other  words,  a  special  powder  could  be  determined  for 

1  Captain  Robinson  reports  the  following  analyses  at  the  School  of  Sub- 
marine Defense,  Fort  Totten,  N.  Y. : 

English.  German. 

Nitre 79paits  77  parts 

Charcoal 18     "  20      " 

Sulphur _ 

100  100 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES.  105 

each  piece  of  ordnance,  and  the  idea  came  to  be  known  as  the 
principle  of  special  powders.  In  carrying  out  this  idea,  he  experi- 
mented with  powder  having  much  larger  grains  than  had  been 
used  prior  to  his  time,  and  with  powders  of  varying  density  and 
forms,  including  those  subsequently  known  as  "  mammoth/7 
"pebble,"  lenticular,  perforated  prismatic,  and  perforated  cylin- 
drical cake-powders. 

The  Civil  War  put  a  stop  to  Rodman's  experiments,  and, 
after  the  war,  although  he  desired  to  continue  them,  he  was, 
for  some  reason  difficult  to  appreciate,  ordered  to  a  post  of 
duty  where  it  was  impossible  to  give  any  attention  to  the  matter. 

Knowledge  of  his  work  had,  however,  become  known  abroad, 
and  the  line  of  investigation  was  taken  up  there,  resulting, 
after  a  time,  in  the  adoption  of  the  perforated  prism  as  the 
standard  form  of  grain  for  large  guns. 

The  fundamental  idea  involved  in  this  development  may  be 
said  to  be,  to  so  control  the  combustion  of  a  charge  of  powder 
in  a  given  gun  that  there  shall  be  a  certain  uniformly  progres- 
sive evolution  of  gas,  so  that  the  projectile  will  be  started  from 
rest  under  a  minimum  pressure,  with  the  quantity  of  gas  evolved 
in  consecutive  instants  of  time,  gradually  increasing  until  the 
projectile  reaches  a  certain  point  in  the  bore  of  the  gun. 
The  pressure  in  the  gun  increases  to  a  maximum  soon  after 
the  projectile  is  started,  and  then  falls  regularly:  the  velocity 
increases  to  a  maximum  at  a  point  just  beyond  the  muzzle. 

The  first  step  was  to  gain  slow  combustion  through  increas- 
ing the  density  and  enlarging  the  size  of  the  grain;  the  result 
of  this  was  evidenced  in  the  old  "  mammoth  "  powder  that  was 
used  in  the  15-inch  smooth-bore  Rodman  guns. 

The  next  was,  while  holding  to  the  above  principles,  to 
control  the  rate  of  evolution  of  gas  in  burning  a  grain  of 
powder  by  perforating  it,  and  to  have  thereby  a  certain  por- 
tion (from  the  interior  outward)  of  the  grain  burn  on  increasing 
surfaces,  giving  for  this  portion  increasing  quantities  of  gas  in 
succeeding  intervals  of  time. 

This  same  effect  was  later  obtained  in  another  way  by  the 
so-called  Fossano  Powder,  made  in  Italy.  The  powder-grain 
was  in  itself  a  conglomerate  of  smaller  grains  bound  together 


Io6  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

by  a  suitable  powder  matrix,  the  whole  being  compacted  into 
large  grains  by  pressure.  As  the  large  grain  burned,  it  was 
broken  up,  exposing  the  surfaces  of  the  smaller  grains,  and  in 
this  way  offering  successively  increasing  surfaces  for  ignition 
and  burning,  and,  consequently,  increasing  quantities  of  gas. 

The  next  was,  to  establish  uniformity  in  time  of  burning  of 
each  grain  by  moulding  the  grains,  as  in  the  hexagonal  and 
sphero-hexagonal  powders,  and,  in  connection  with  the  pressure 
applied  in  forming  these  moulded  powders,  to  produce  a  higher 
density  of  grain  on  the  surface  than  in  the  interior  of  each 
grain,  illustrating  the  principle  of  varying  density  of  grain. 

The  perforated  prism  gave,  however,  the  best  results,  and 
the  right  hexagonal  prism  came  in  time  to  be  the  standard 
form  of  grain  for  large  guns  the  world  over.  Variation  existed 
in  the  number  of  perforations,  some  prisms  having  but  one 
perforation,  others  seven,  one  opposite  each  angle  and  one  in  the 
centre.  The  last-named  is  thought  to  be  the  arrangement  gen- 
erally adopted.  That  portion  of  a  prismatic  grain  between  the 
perforations  is  called  the  web  of  the  grain;  its  thickness  is  the 
determining  factor  in  the  time  of  combustion. 

In  determining  the  " special  powder"  required  for  a  given 
gun,  the  density  and  granulation  (number  of  grains  to  the 
pound)  of  hexagonal  and  sphero-hexagonal  are  the  data  to  be 
fixed  by  computation  .or  experiment;  if  prismatic  powder  is 
to  be  used,  the  dimension  of  the  prism  and  the  number  and 
size  of  the  perforations  must  be  determined. 

As  the  ability  of  the  powder-manufacturers  to  make  slow- 
burning  powders  developed,  the  maximum  pressures  in  the 
rear  portion  of  the  bores  of  guns  fell,  but  the  pressures  in  front 
of  the  trunnions  was  increased.  At  the  same  time,  the  gun- 
rnakers  were  able  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  built-up  gun, 
so  as  to  make  it  possible  for  the  gun  to  bear  slightly  higher 
pressure:  The  improvement  in  gun-making  also  made  it  pos- 
sible to  increase  the  lengths  of  bores;  this,  in  turn,  made  it  pos- 
sible to  burn  more  powder  in  the  guns  and  thereby  increase 
velocity.  To  receive  these  larger  charges,  and  also  to  further 
control  the  powder-pressure  over  the  charge,  enlarged  powder 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES.  107 

chambers  were  introduced.  By  properly  adjusting  the  relations 
the  volume  of  the  powder  chamber,  the  weight  of  charge  and  of 
the  length  of  the  bore,  the  pressure  corresponding  to  a  given  ve- 
locity could  be  kept  within  the  limit  of  the  gun's  elastic  strength. 

NITROCELLULOSE  POWDERS. 

Nitrocellulose  may  be  considered  as  the  base  of  all  forms  of 
smokeless  powders. 

The  nitrocellulose  molecule  contains  within  itself  the  ele- 
ments carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  so  that,  when  conditions 
favorable  to  a  disruption  of  existing  molecular  bonds  and  to  a 
recombination  of  these  elements  are  produced,  the  reactions  of 
combustion  take  place,  producing  the  gaseous  oxides  of  carbon 
and  water- vapor.  In  the  case  of  charcoal  powders,  these  elements 
were  brought  by  mechanical  process  into  such  intimate  relations 
that  each  particle  of  black  or  brown  powder  should  contain  the 
elements  necessary  for  combustion.  The  two  classes  of  explo- 
sives have,  therefore,  a  fundamental  difference  in  this  respect. 
In  nitrocellulose,  the  elements  to  produce  combination  are 
present  in  the  molecule  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  fixed 
proportions,  in  great  purity  and  in  closer  relations  than  is  pos- 
sible with  a  mechanical  mixture,  like  charcoal  powder. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  structural  formula  of  cellulose 
was  written  (p.  82)  to  show  its  analogy  to  the  alcohols,  thus: 


H— C— H  H— C— 0 

H— 0— C— H  H-C— 0 

H— 0— C— H  H-C— 0— H 

H-O-C-H  H-C-O-H 

I  I 

O— C— H  H— C— 0— H 

I      I  I 

O— C— H  H— C— H 

I | 


io8  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

It  will  be  recalled,  also,  that  ethers  may  be  considered  to 
be  formed  from  the  alcohols  by  substituting  a  suitable  hydro- 
carbon radical  for  the  hydrogen  of  the  hydroxyl  radical  of 
alcohol  (p.  81). 

Thus,  ethyl  ether  is  derived  from  ethyl  alcohol  by  substitut- 
ing the  ethyl  radical  for  the  hydrogen  of  the  hydroxyl  of  the 
alcohol : 

H  H 

H-C— H  H— C— H 

I  I        , 

H— 0— C— H  (C2H5)— 0— C— H 

I  I 

H  II 

Ethyl  alcohol  [C2H6(HO)]  Ethyl  ether  [(C2H3)2O] 

In  the  same  way  nitric  ether  may  be  produced  from  alcohol 
by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  alcohol,  the  radical  nitryl,  N02> 
displacing  the  hydroxyl  hydrogen  atom  and  giving: 

H 

H— C— H 
(N02)— 0-C— H 

t 

Nitric  ether  (C2H5.O.NO2) 

In  like  manner  the  hydrogen  of  the  hydroxyl  radicals  of  the 
cellulose  molecule  may  be  displaced  by  N02  by  the  action  of 
nitric  acid,  giving  substances  which  in  molecular  structure 
resemble  nitric  ethers.  There  are  three  hydroxyl  groups  in 
the  cellulose  molecule  that  are  susceptible  of  this  substitution; 
there  may,  therefore,  be  three  separate  displacements,  as  follows, 
using  the  double  grouping: 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLCSIYES. 


109 


H— C— H  H— C-0 

I  I      I 

(N02)— 0— C-H  H— C— O 

H— 0— C— II  H— C— 0— H 

H— 0— C— H  H— C— 0— H 


Mononitrocellulose 


0— C— H    H— C— 0— (N02) 
0— C— H    H— C— H 


H— C— H  H— C— 0 

!  I     I 

(N02)— 0~C— H— H— C— 0 

I  I 

(N02)-0-C-H  H-C-0— H  Dinitrocellulose 

H— 0— C— H  H— C— 0— (N02) 

0— C— H  H— C— 0— (N02) 

I      I  I 

0— C— H  H— C— H 


H_C— H  H-C— 0 

I  I      I 

(N02)— 0— C— H  H— C— 0 

I  I 

(N02)— 0-C— H  H-C-0-(N02)  Trinitrocellulose 

I  I 

(N02)— 0-C— H  H— C— 0— (N02) 

I  I 

0— C— H  H— C— 0— (N02) 

I      I  I 

0-C— H  H-C— H 


no  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

On  account  of  this  and  other  chemical  analogies  nitrocellu- 
lose is  generally  classed  as  a  compound  nitric  ether  of  the  tri- 
hydric  alcohol,  cellulose. 

The  nitryl  radicals  which  are  transferred  when  cellulose 
is  acted  on  by  nitric  acid  introduce  weak  molecular  bonds, 
which  give  way  under  the  action  of  heat  and  permit 
the  elements  to  combine  with  great  energy,  according  to 
their  relative  affinities  for  each  other,  and  it  is  this  feature 
particularly,  which  constitutes  nitrocellulose  an  explosive. 
The  result  o'f  the  breaking-up  of  the  trinitrocellulose  mole- 
cule in  explosion  may  be  represented  by  the  following 
reaction : 

[C6H7.02.03 (N02)3]2  exploded  =  7H20  +  9CO + 3C02 + 3N2. 


The  Nitration  of  Cellulose. 

For  military  explosives,  the  cellulose  used  for  nitration  is, 
as  a  rule,  the  waste  from  cotton-spinning  factories,  cotton-cloth 
factories,  or  other  forms  of  pure  cotton  fibre. 

Within  the  past  few  years  much  attention  has  been  given 
to  the  subject  of  nitration  of  cellulose  by  several  eminent  inves- 
tigators and  scientists,  including  Vieille,  Bruley,  Lunge,  Will, 
and  others.1 

In  1878  Dr.  J.  M.  Eder  arrived  at  the  conclusion,  as  a  result 
of  a  series  of  experiments,  that  there  were  as  many  as  six  degrees 
of  nitration  of  cellulose,  three  of  which  he  was  able  to  produce 
and  isolate,  namely,  the  hexa-,  penta-,  and  di-;  two,  the  tetra- 
and  tri-,  he  obtained  in  admixture  with  others;  the  mono-  he 
was  unable  to  prepare. 

Eder  assumed  the  double  type  of  molecule,  corresponding 
to  Ci2,  and  wrote  the  formulas  as  follows: 


1  "  Nitration  of  Cotton,"  by  M.  Bruley.  "  Researches  upon  the  Nitration 
of  Cotton,"  by  M.  Vieille.  "  Investigations  as  to  the  Stability  of  Nitrocellu- 
lose," by  Dr.  W.  Will.  G,  Lunge's  experiments  in  nitrating  cellulose. 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES.  ill 

Mono-nitrocellulose Ci2H1909(N03) 

Di-  " C12H1808(N03)2 

Tri-  "          C12H1707(N03)3 

Tetra-          "          C12H1606(N03)4 

Penta-          "          C12H1505(N03)5    , 

Hexa-          ll          C12H1404(N03)6 

Vieille,  as  a  result  of  extended  research  made  in  1883,  arrived 
at  the  conclusion  that,  in  order  to  account  for  the  amount  of 
N02  given  by  the  products  of  his  experiments,  the  formula 
CeHioOs  must  be  quadrupled,  and  the  molecular  formula  of 
cellulose  written  C24H40020;  giving  rise  to  eight  varieties  of 
nitrocellulose,  as  follows : 

•  Cellulose  tetra-nitrate. C24H3602o(N02)4 

penta-  "  C24H3502o(N02)5 

"  hexa-  "  C24H3402o(N02)6 

hepta-  "  C24H33020(N02)7 

octo-  ll  C24H32020(N02)8 

"  ennea-  ' '  C24H3i020(N02)9 

deca-  " C24H3002o(N02)10  , 

"        endeca-  "  C24H2902o(N02)n 

Of  these  the  deca-  and  endeca-  varieties  were  found  to  be 
insoluble  in  ether-alcohol;  the  ennea-  and  octo-  were  soluble 
and  capable  of  being  colloided;  the  lower  nitrations  gave  friable 
products  insoluble  in  ether-alcohol. 

In  Vieille 's  researches  the  present  military  smokeless  powder 
may  be  said  to  have  had  its  origin.  Soon  after  his  deductions 
were  announced,  the  manufacture  of  smokeless  powder  in 
France  was  begun.  The  French  powder  was  kept  a  secret  for 
some  time.  The  success  of  the  French  inaugurated  activity 
throughout  Europe,  and,  before  long,  the  nitrocellulose  base 
came  to  be  the  essential  ingredient  of  all  smokeless  powders. 

In  Russia  the  development  of  a  smokeless  powder  was 
intrusted  to  the  celebrated  chemist,  Professor  D.  Mendeleef. 
His  investigations  resulted  in  the  claim  that  he  had  been  able 


112  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

to  produce  a  definite  nitrocellulose  having  the  formula 
C3oH38025(N02)i2,  which  he  called  "pyrocollodion,"  which 
colloided  perfectly  in  ether-alcohol,  and  in  combustion  gave  the 
maximum  volume  of  gas  possible  from  the  elements  represented 
in  the  molecule,  since  the  content  of  oxygen,  as  given  in  the  for- 
mula, is  just  sufficient  to  burn  all  of  the  C  to  CO,  after  burning 
the  H  to  H20;  the  explosive  reaction  being  as  follows: 

CsoHssCWNOs)  12  exploded  =  30CO  +  19H20  +  6N2. 

Mendeleef  s  claim  that  his  pyrocollodion  is  a  definite  com- 
pound is  disputed.  It  is  claimed  by  others  that  the  substance 
is,  rather,  a  mixture  of  nitrates  of  different  degrees  of  nitra- 
tion, such,  for  example,  as  the  following : 

2[C6H705(N02)3]^C12H14010(N02)6 


C3oH38025(N02)12 

Pyrocollodion,    according   to   Mendeleef,    results  from   the 
following  reaction  : 


Perhaps  the  most  complete  series  of  experiments  made  in 
connection  with  the  nitration  of  cellulose  are  those  made  by 
the  French  Government  chemist,  M.  Bruley,  published  in  the 
Memorial  des  Poudres  et  Salpetres,  vol.  viii,  1895-96,  in  a  paper 
entitled  "Sur  la  Fabrication  des  Cotons  Nitres/'  an  English 
translation  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  Bernadou's  "Smokeless 
Powder,  Nitrocellulose,  and  Theory  of  the  Cellulose  Molecule.'' 

M.  Bruley  points  out  that  of  recent  years  the  various  grades 
of  nitrocellulose  have  given  rise  to  many  varied  uses,  such  as 
photographic  films,  celluloid,  mercerized  cotton,  in  the  mechani- 
cal arts;  and  guncotton  and  smokeless  powder  in  military 
explosives.  Each  of  these  requires  a  special  variety  of  nitro- 
cellulose, and  it  becomes  important,  if  possible,  to  fix  the  con- 
ditions which  regulate  the  nature  of  the  product. 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES 


For  many  years  military  guncotton  had  been  manufactured 
from  the  standard  mixture  of  acids,  three  parts  of  sulphuric 
acid  by  weight  (65.5°  Baume)  and  one  part  by  weight  of  nitric 
acid  (48°  Baume).  But,  as  a  result,  chiefly  of  Vieille's  investi- 
gations, his  classification  of  the  nitrocelluloses  and  the  manu- 
facture of  smokeless  powders  based  on  his  deductions,  it  became 
desirable  to  determine  some  practical  rules  and  guides  for  the 
manufacture  of  the  new  nitrocelluloses  of  lower  nitration. 

In  the  ordinary  manufacture  of  nitrocellulose,  the  product 
is  apt  to  contain  a  mixture  of  the  three  classes  of  nitrocellu- 
loses, guncottons  (endeca-  and  deca-nitrates) ,  collodions  (ennea-, 
octo-,  and  hepta-nitrates),  and  friable  cottons  (penta-  and 
tetra-nitrates) .  The  first  of  these  is  insoluble  in  ether-alcohol, 
the  second  is  soluble  in  that  mixture,  the  third  not  soluble. 

The  experiments  of  M.  Bruley  had  for  their  object,  there- 
fore, the  determination  of  some  practical  method  of  obtaining 
a  certain  desired  product  in  the  nitration  of  cellulose. 

His  experiments  may  be  well  explained  by  reference  to  the 
accompanying  figure. 

For  the  purpose  of  graphically  representing  the  conditions  of 
the  experiments  let  0  represent  the  origin  of  a  set  of  axes,  OX  and 
OF.  Let  OX  represent  the  axis  of  the 
proportion  by  weight  of  water  used  in 
the  mixture,  and  OY  the  axis  of  the 
proportion  by  weight  of  nitric  acid 
used.  Let  OX'  =  OY'  represent  the 
fixed  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  used. 
Let  OX"  represent  a  certain  quantity 
of  water  used  in  a  particular  experi- 
ment, and  OY"  represent  a  certain 

quantity  of  nitric  acid  used  in  the  same  experiment.   Express  OX" 
as  a  percentage  of  OX'  and  OY"  as  a  percentage  of  OY1 ';  that  is 
if  OX'  and  OYf  =  100%  weight  (the  fixed  weight  of  the  sulphuric 

OX" 

acid),  7jvT>  carried  out  to  hundredths  in  decimal  form,  will  rep- 
resent the  percentage  quantity  by  weight  of  water  used  in  terms 


x" 


X" 


IJ4  NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

of  the  fixed  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  used,  and,  similarly,  j-~- 

will  represent  the  percentage  quantity  by  weight  of  nitric  acid  used 
in  terms  of  the  fixed  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  line  X"Y'" 
represents  the  locus  of  all  products,  corresponding  to  the  ratio 

OX" 

between  water  and  sulphuric  acid. 


The  line  Y"X'"  similarly  represents  the  locus  of  all  nitric- 

07" 
acid  mixtures,  corresponding  to  the  ratio  ^y^  between  nitric 

acid  and  sulphuric  acid.  The  point  P  corresponds  to  a  definite 
.mixture  of  OX"  parts  of  water,  07"  parts  of  nitric  acid,  and 
OZ'  =  07'  parts  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  area  OY'QX'  includes 
within  it  all  possible  combinations  of  mixtures  of  water  and 
nitric  acid  with  sulphuric  acid,  when  the  quantities  of  water 
and  nitric  acid  do  not,  either  of  them,  exceed  the  quantity  of 
sulphuric  acid  used. 

M.  Bruley  assumed  twenty-five  points  uniformly  distributed 
throughout  this  area,  prepared  the  mixtures  to  correspond 
thereto,  immersed  the  cellulose  in  these  mixtures,  and  steeped 
them  for  6,  12,  and  24  hours,  thus  producing  three  series  of 
nitrations.  He  subsequently  determined,  by  chemical  analysis 
and  physical  experiment,  the  following  data: 

1.  The  nitrogen  content,  expressed  in  c.c.  of  N02. 

2.  The  solubility  in  ether-alcohol. 

3.  The  viscosity  in  ether-alcohol. 

The  temperature  of  the  immersions  was  12°  to  13°  C. 

The  water  normally  present  in  both  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acid  was  determined  carefully,  and  considered  as  a  part  of  the 
water  ingredient  of  the  acid  mixtures.  These  determinations 
were  5  to  6  per  cent  in  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  10  to  15  per  cent 
in  the  nitric  acid. 

The  fixed  weight  of  sulphuric  acid  taken  was  1.2  kilos. 

A  separate  mixture  was  made  for  each  of  the  twenty-five 
points,  corresponding  to  a  range  of  nitric  acid  of  10  to  60 
per  cent;  and  of  water,  10  to  45  per  cent.  The  inferior 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES.  115 

limit  for  nitric  acid  being  fixed  by  the  time  required  for 
nitration,  and  the  superior  limit  by  that  cost  of  the  acid 
beyond  which  it  would  not  pay  to  go  in  manufacturing  nitro- 
cellulose for  the  trade;  the  lower  limit  of  water  was  fixed  by 
the  quantity  of  water  always  present  in  the  strongest  acid,  the 
higher  limit  by  the  limit  of  colloidable  nitrocellulose. 

When  the  quantity  of  nitric  acid  fell  below  15  per  cent,  the 
time  required  to  nitrate  completely  was  so  prolonged  that  it  would 
not  be  practicable,  commercially,  to  use  so  low  a  percentage. 

The  samples  consisted  of  4  grams  of  bleached  spun-cotton 
waste,  and  were  immersed  in  400  grams  of  mixed  acids. 

The  table  on  page  118  gives  the  results  of  the  experiments. 

Bruley  divided  the  products  into:  (1)  guncotton,  (2)  col- 
loids, and  (3)  friable  cottons. 

In  general  terms  it  may  be  said  that  the  guncottons  resulted 
from  mixtures  within  the  following  ranges  of  percentages,  by 
weight  of  nitric  acid  and  water,  the  weight  of  sulphuric  acid 
being  100  per  cent: 

For  nitric  acid,  55  per  cent;  water,  12  to  24  per  cent. 

( (  i  i  ll        -tr     l  (          (I  it  o  1 1     -\r>     ( i          ii 

In  the  same  way  the  limits  of  mixtures  for  the  most  perfect 
colloids  having,  say,  a  solubility  above  90  per  cent,  were : 

For  nitric  acid,  55  per  cent;  water,  27  to  35  per  cent. 
11       "        "     15  "       "         ll      18  "  25   "      " 

A  fairly  high  degree  of  solubility  extended  beyond  these 
wat^r  percentages  to  about  40  per  cent  of  water  for  55  per  cent 
of  nitric  acid,  and  about  27  per  cent  of  water  for  15  per  cent  of 
nitric  acid. 

Beyond  these  latter  water  limits  the  products  were  friable 
cottons. 

The  guncottons  correspond  to  nitrocellulose,  having  a  nitro- 
gen content  above  about  12.9  per  cent;  the  higher  colloids,  a 
nitrogen  content  less  than  about  12.9  per  cent  and  more  than 


n6 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


*o  o  co  o  r-<  I-H      T-H  10 

CS  OS  CO  T-I        O        <M        GO        OS 


COO<MOOOO<N         GO         00         <M         COO 


'-iI1^T-(Ot^O5T-HT-HCO«C>T-H 
COT-i        OOiCOOiOO        OiC^ 


c^ifc-cTtiri—tcoTHr-i 


^c^ifoco-^cOTtirfi—tcoTtHr-iTtioiot^eor^ccC' 
os<M  ^  oo  -    0100  coi>  to  ^  CM  i>  oo  to  os  co  o  oo  os 


oo'co  w  T-H  os  cooo  (M  occi  oo  o  co  o-*  toco  TJ<  t^  10-^  »o 


S3888888S8888SS§8§888§888 


%g  ^noq-e  l 

uosu'Braoo  p  as-eq 
-T)  pasn  ^ 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES. 


117 


about  12  per  cent;  the  inferior  colloids,  a  nitrogen  content  of 
from  just  below  12  per  cent  to  just  above  10  per  cent. 

Content  of  N  in  percent 


• 

100 
110 
—  120 
—  130 

140 

{ 

' 

1 

3           1 

i       i 

2            1 

3          1 

\            1 

5 

\ 

\ 

V 

124\ 

.75  Sol. 

V 

1.5 

\ 

\ 

V 

ICO 

\ 

170 

1 

»\nM 

5  Sol.  95 

—  180 
190 

\ 

V 

188^1 

L.72  Sol. 

97 

200 
—  210 
220 

20oVl2 

205\ 
•'09 

!5-Sot-9C 
12.9  Sol 
^13.15.? 

?nl.  S 

\ 

\ 

For  a  fixed  per  cent  of  nitric  acid  in  a  series  of  mixtures 
in  which  the  per  cent  of  water  only  varies,  the  nitrogen  content 
changes  slowly  in  passing  beyond  the  guncotton  zone  as  the 
water  percentage  increases,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  solu- 
bility changes  very  rapidly.  A  nitrogen  content  of  about  12.5 
per  cent  is  soon  reached,  having  a  solubility  of  about  95  per 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


cent,  and  after  this  has  been  attained  considerable  variation  may 
be  made  in  the  quantity  of  water  with  little  change  in  either 
the  nitrogen  content  or  in  the  solubility.  When  the  increase 
of  water  for  this  same  quantity  of  nitric  acid  causes  the  nitrogen 
content  to  fall  to  about  10.5  per  cent,  the  solubility  drops 
below  90.  Beyond  this  an  increase  of  water  causes  a  gradual 
decrease  in  both  nitrogen  content  and  solubility  to  take  place 
until  the  lowest  recorded  limit  is  reached;  that  is  to  say,  a 
limit  of  nitrogen  content  of  about  7.75  per  cent  and  a  solubility 
of  about  1.5. 

While  the  relative  proportion  of  the  ingredients  of  the  acid 
mixture  is  the  chief  factor  influencing  the  result  of  nitration 
other  causes  have  an  effect,  such  as  (1)  duration  of  steeping, 
(2)  temperature  of  dipping  and  steeping,  (3)  subsequent  steps 
in  purification. 

Cotton-wadding  nitrates  more  readily  than  spun-cotton  waste. 
Generally  speaking,  the  more  perfectly  the  fibres  are  separated 
and  the  waste  freed  from  tangles  and  knots  the  quicker  and 
better  the  nitration. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  same  degree  of  nitration,  the  steeping 
should  be  prolonged  in  proportion  as  HNOs  is  reduced  in  the 
acid  mixture.  The  influence  of  duration  on  the  N02  content 
and  solubility  appears  in  the  following  table : 


Duration 
of 
Steeping. 

Inferior  Colloid. 

Superior  Colloid. 

Guncotton. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

NO2 
Content, 
c.c. 

Solubility, 
per  cent. 

N02 
c.c. 

Solubility. 

N02 
c.c. 

Solubility. 

1  hr. 
2hrs. 

4   ' 
6   ' 
8   ' 
12   ' 
24    ' 

165.8 
166.8 
167.8 
167.8 
166.8 

91.7 
95.5 
93.0 
94.8 
95.4 

186.8 
189. 
191.8 
198. 
191.8 

94.9 
95.0 
96.2 
94.1 
96.7 

206.4 
209.4 
209.2 
210.2 
210.2 
210.8 
210.6 

10.9 
8.3 
6.8 
6.7 
5.6 
7.4 
10.6 

166.8 

98.1 

194. 

96.6 

From  which  it  is  observed  that  with  the  colloids  from  2  to 
6  hours  are  required,  and  with  guncotton,  8  to  10  hours.     If 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES.  119 

the  reaction  be  continued  beyond  6  to  8  hours,  the  solubility 
for  the  same  nitrogen  content  is  materially  increased. 

Increase  of  temperature,  during  dipping  and  steeping,  up 
to  26°  C.,  increases  both  the  solubility  and  N02  content  of 
colloids,  and  has  a  tendency  to  the  same  for  guncottons. 

When,  therefore,  it  is  desired  to  produce  a  definite  nitro- 
cellulose it  is  first  necessary  to  fix  the  composition  of  the  acid 
mixture,  following  the  principles  set  forth  above,  and  testing 
the  nitrogen  content  by  the  usual  nitrometer,  method. 

While  the  degree  of  nitration  may  be  regulated  by  the  fore- 
going principles,  the  stability  of  the  product  depends  chiefly 
on  the  process  of  purification.  It  is  found  that  any  nitro- 
cellulose after  nitration  contains  certain  nitro-by-products 
which  are  more  or  less  unstable,  and  these  are  liable  to  spon- 
taneous decomposition  in  storage;  some  of  these  nitro-products 
may  disintegrate  under  comparatively  low  heat  and  often 
cause  the  condemnation  of  nitrocellulose  which,  except  for  their 
presence,  is  thoroughly  trustworthy.  Dr.  W.  Will,  of  the 
German  Central  Station  for  Scientific-Technical  Investigation, 
New  Babelsberg,  near  Berlin,  has  investigated  this  phase  of  the 
problem,  and  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  these  nitro-by- 
products  are  produced  in  the  nitration  of  cellulose,  besides  the 
nitrocellulose  proper,  and  the  nature  of  these  by-products  is  such 
that  they  are  not  wholly  soluble  in  cold  water,  and,  when  cold 
water  alone  is  used  in  the  purification,  they  are  not  carried  off. 
Boiling  and  subsequent  washing  in  cold  water  removes  them, 
due,  perhaps,  to  the  fnct  that  the  boiling  modifies  the  chemical 
nature  of  some  of  these  products,  rendering  them  soluble  in  cold 
water  and,  when  the  latter  is  applied  after  boiling,  the  ob- 
jectionable products  are  removed. 

Dr.  Will  claims  that  when  boiling  and  cold  washing  are 
properly  conducted,  practically  all  of  such  unstable  by-products 
are  removed,  and  the  resulting  nitrocellulose  proper,  whatever 
its  degree  of  nitration,  is  a  safe  compound  and  may  be  stored 
for  years  under  normal  temperatures,  without  change.  Nitro- 
cellulose so  prepared  is  said  by  him  to  be  in  its  "limit  state/' 


120  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

and  such  nitrocellulose,  if  subjected  to  a  higher  heat,  say  135° 
C.,  as  in  the  German  heat-test,  will  evolve  equal  volumes  of  N 
in  equal  times;  this  Time-Nitrogen  relation,  when  plotted, 
approximates  closely  to  a  right  line  for  the  limit  state. 

Nomenclature  of  Nitrocelluloses. 

There  are  various  products  resulting  from  the  nitration 
of  cellulose  to  different  degrees  and  under  different  conditions. 
These  may  be  enumerated  as  follows,  following  the  nomenclature 
given  by  Bernadou : 

Nitrocellulose.  A  general  term  applied  to  products  resulting  from  the 
action  of  nitric  acid  on  cellulose,  in  which  the  organic  cellular  struc- 
ture of  the  original  cotton  fibre  has  not  been  destroyed. 

Nitrocellulose  of  high  nitration.1  Those  in  which  the  content  of  nitrogen 
is  large,  say  12.9%  or  greater. 

Nitrocellulose  of  mean  nitration.1  Those  in  which  the  content  of  nitrogen 
is  mean,  say  less  than  12.9%  and  greater  than  about  11%. 

Nitrocellulose  of  low  nitration.1  Those  in  which  the  content  of  nitrogen 
is  less  than  about  11%. 

Insoluble  nitrocelluloses.  Those  insoluble  in  ether-alcohol  mixture  2  at 
ordinary  temperature  and  pressure. 

Soluble  nitrocelluloses.  Those  soluble  in  ether-alcohol  mixture  at  ordi- 
nary temperature  and  pressure. 

Hydrocellulose.  The  product  obtained  by  acting  on  cellulose  with  the 
fumes  of  HC1,  or  by  immersing  cellulose  in  HC1,  H2SO4,  or  very 
dilute  HNO3.  It  is  a  white,  pulverulent  mass  which,  examined 
under  the  microscope,  shows  that  the  cellular  tissue  of  the  original 
cotton  fibre  has  been  modified. 

Nitrohydrocellulose.  The  product  resulting  by  acting  on  hydrocellulose 
with  HN03  (strong),  the  product  still  retaining  the  modified  cellular 
form  of  the  hydrocellulose. 

Nitrohydrocellulose  of  high  nitration.  Contains  relatively  a  high  per 
cent  of  N. 

Nitrohydrocellulose  of  mean  nitration.  Contains  relatively  a  mean  per 
cent  of  N. 

Nitrohydrocellulose  of  low  nitration.   Contains  relatively  a  low  per  cent  of  N. 

Insoluble  nitrohydrocellulose.  Those  insoluble  in  ether-alcohol  at  ordi- 
nary temperature  and  pressure. 

1  See  Vieille's  Classification  of  Nitrocelluloses  (table),  p.  121. 

2  In  the  proportion  of  2  parts  by  volume  of  ether  to  1  part  by  volume  of 
alcohol. 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES. 


121 


Soluble  nitrohydrocellulose.  Those  soluble  in  ether-alcohol  at  ordinary 
temperature  and  pressure. 

Guncotton.  Those  nitrocelluloses  of  high  nitration  used  for  disruptive 
purposes  in  war.  They  consist,  as  a  rule,  of  a  mixture  of  insoluble 
nitrocellulose  with  a  small  quantity  of  soluble  nitrocellulose  and  a 
very  small  quantity  of  unnitrated  cellulose. 

Pyrocellulose.  A  soluble  nitrocellulose  of  so  called  definite  percentage  of 
N(12.4),  corresponding  to  the  molecular  formula,  C^H^NO^,,/}^ 
claimed  to  have  been  produced  by  Mendeleef;  it  possesses  just 
sufficient  content  of  O  to  burn  all  of  the  C  to  CO,  the  H  to  H2O. 

Colloid,  or  collodion  nitrocellulose.  Nitrocellulose  that  may  be  colloided 
in  ether-alcohol. 

VIEILLE'S  CLASSIFICATION  OF  NITROCELLULOSES. 


Molecular 
Formula. 

Designation. 

Theoretical 
c.c.  of  NO2. 

Experimental 
c.c.  of  NO2. 

Theoretical 
per  cent  of 

Remarks. 

C24H:i8020(N02)4 

Tetra- 

nitrocelluose 

108 

109 

6.76 

C  H  O  (NO  ^ 

Penta- 

nitrocellulose 

128 

132 

8.02 

C  H  O  (NO  ) 

Hexa- 

nitrocellulose 

146 

143 

9.15 

Only  slightly  at-  1 
tacked  by  acet-      5 
ic     ether     and      »' 

ether-alcohol.         S 

C24H3a020(N02)7 

Hepta- 
nitrocellulose 

162 

164 

10.18 

CD 

—  v,v,w.*xW         6v,*«,l.-              ^ 

inous  in  acetic      o" 

ether   and      § 

ether-alcohol.     J 

C24H32020(N02)8 

Octo- 
nitrocellulose 

178 

182 

11.11 

Soluble  in    ]Inferior 

cohol"a  "    J  colloid' 

C24H3)020(N02)9 
C24H30020(N02)10 

Ennea- 
nitrocellulose 
Deca- 
nitrocellulose 

190 
203 

192 
205 

11.96  f 
12.75] 

Highly  sol-] 
uble  in       !  Superior 
ether-al-     {    colloid. 

I 

cohol. 

C24H29O20(NO2)11 

Endeca- 

nitrocellulose 

214 

215 

13.47 

Insoluble  in"] 

ether  -  alco-  1    Gun- 

hoi.  Soluble  j  cotton. 

in  acetone.  J 

According  to  Guttmann  Vieille's  formulas  are  not  beyond  question. 
Guttman  himself  claims  to  have  made  guncotton  on  a  large  scale,  containing 
13.65  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  which,  according  to  Vieille,  would  be  impossible. 


122  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Colloidization. 

After  cellulose  has  been  dipped  in  nitric  acid  ("  nitrated  ") 
and  "  purified  "  of  the  free  acid  and  nitro-by-products  by  boil- 
ing and  washing  in  water,  it  possesses  a  property  it  did  not 
have  before,  namely,  it  is  soluble  in  certain  liquids  in  which  it 
was  not  soluble  as  cellulose.  The  two  most  important  of  these 
liquids  are  acetone  and  a  mixture  of  ether  and  alcohol,  in  the 
proportion  by  volume  of  2  to  1. 

If  an  excess  of  the  liquid  be  used  a  true  solution  is  formed, 
and  if  the  liquid  be  evaporated  off,  the  nitrocellulose  will  remain 
as  a  horn-like  compact  mass,  called  "colloid,"  in  which  all 
evidences  of  cellular  structure  have  disappeared.  If  the  quantity 
of  solvent  be  reduced  sufficiently,  the  solid  nitrocellulose  will 
soften  and  take  the  form  of  a  paste-like  mass,  one  of  the  states 
passed  through  from  the  true  solution  to  the  compact,  horn-like 
solid  in  evaporating  the  solvent. 

This  process  of  dissolving  nitrocellulose  and  producing  the 
colloid  form  of  it  is  called  colloidization. 

In  connection  with  nitro-explosives  there  are  two  important 
series  of  colloids:  one,  the  acetone  series;  the  other,  the  ether- 
alcohol  series. 

Acetone  dissolves  the  nitrocelluloses  of  highest  nitration^ 
and  gives  colloids  which  are  characterized  by  brittleness.  Under 
pressure  or  shock  they  break  up.  This  fact  renders  such  col- 
loids dangerous  when  used  alone  for  powder;  the  shocks  due 
to  handling  and  the  pressure  in  the  bore  of  a  gun  would  cause 
grains  to  be  disintegrated,  the  rate  of  combustion  to  be  enor- 
mously increased,  and  excessive  pressures. 

The  ether-alcohol  colloids,  on  the  other  hand,  are  tough  and 
elastic.  It  is  from  this  class  of  colloids  that  most  smokeless 
powders  now  in  use  are  made. 

The  several  physical  states  of  the  two  series  of  colloids,  as  a  re- 
sult of  evaporation  from  the  solution,  may  be  described  as  follows : 
Acetone  series:  Liquid,  slime,  plastic  mass,  brittle  colloid. 
Ether-alcohol  series:  Liquid,  jelly,  elastic  mass,  tough  colloid. 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES.  123 


Manufacture  of  Smokeless  Powder. 

While  there  are  minor  differences  in  the  manufacture  of 
smokeless  powder  as  conducted  at  the  different  factories,  the 
essential  steps  are  the  same,  and  are  performed  in  practically 
the  same  manner.  The  following  description  of  the  commercial 
method  of  manufacture  gives  these  steps  in  sufficient  detail. 

1.  CLEANING. 

(a)  Washing-house.        The  base,1  in  the  form  of  cotton-waste  or  cotton 

rags,  is  brought  to  the  washing-house  in  large  bales. 
These  are  broken  open  and  the  waste  put  into  the 

(b)  The  Washer.        washer.    This    consists    of    a    large    iron    cylinder 

mounted  on  a  horizontal  axis,  with  pipes  running 
through  the  centre,  which  carry  steam  for  heating  the 
charge.  The  cylinder  is  filled  with  a  solution  of 
caustic  soda  and  the  cotton-waste  is  added  to  this. 
The  washer  revolves  very  slowly.  Its  motion  keeps 

(c)  First  Washing,    the  mass  constantly  agitated,  and  accomplishes  the 

removal  of  oil  and  grease.  A  temperature  of  120° 
to  130°  F.  is  maintained  during  the  washing,  which 
lasts  about  4  hours. 

(d)  Centrifugal  From    the   washing-house   the   cotton   is  taken 

Wringer.  to  a  centrifugal  wringer,  and  wrung  as  dry  as  pos- 

sible. 

(e)  Second  Washing.      It  is  then  returned  to  the  washer  and  washed  a 

second  time  in  clear,  pure  water. 

(/)  Second  Wringing.  It  is  then  wrung  out  a  second  time  in  the  centrif- 
ugal wringer. 

(#)  The  Picker.  After  the  second  wringing  it  is  taken  to  the  picker. 

The  cleaned  cotton-waste,  or  rags,  is  placed  on  the 


1  The  Germans  have  found  that  wood  pulp  gives  a  higher  nitrification 
and  forms  a  better  base  for  smokeless  powder  than  cotton.  The  pulp  is 
prepared  in  a  way  similar  to  that  of  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  paper 
scraps,  after  suitable  mechanical  and  chemical  treatment,  are  also  available. 
Judging  by  the  results  obtained  by  the  Germans,  it  is  thought  to  be  probable 
that  in  the  course  of  time  wood  pulp  will  displace  cotton  fibre  generally  in  the 
manufacture  of  nitrocellulose  powder. 


124  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

apron  of  the  machine,  which  conducts  it  between  two 
horizontal  toothed  cylinders  which  revolve  in  op- 
posite directions,  pulling  in  between  them  the  cotton, 
tearing  apart  the  knots  and  tangled  lumps  of  waste, 
or  the  cotton  rags,  into  shredded  strips,  about  1  inch 
to  1£  inches  long,  and  about  £  inch  wide.  After 
passing  through  the  picker  it  is  collected  in  boxes 
and  taken  to  the  drying-house. 

2.  DRYING. 

Drying-house.  This  house  has  large  wooden  bins  with  perforated 

bottoms.  Hot  air  circulates  under  the  bottoms,  and 
is  forced  up  through  the  bins  and  through  the 
cleaned,  dried,  and  picked  cotton  placed  therein. 
The  temperature  of  the  air  is  from  90°  to  105°  F. 
The  cotton  is  turned  over  by  hand  from  time  to  time. 
It  is  kept  in  the  bins  about  8  hours.  It  then  con- 
tains about  0.5%  of  water.  As  soon  as  the  cotton 
is  thus  dried  it  is  placed  in  air-tight  cans.  This  is 
necessary,  as  it  absorbs  from  \\%  to  2%  of  water  by 
mere  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is  then  taken  to  the 
nitrating-house. 

3.  NITRATING. 

(a)  Nitrating-house.  The  cotton,  as  now  prepared,  is  nitrated  in  earthen 
pots  containing  the  acid  mixture,  or  by  placing  it  in 
a  centrifugal  machine,  so  arranged  as  to  allow  the 
acid  mixture  to  be  admitted  and  the  spent  acids  to 
be  withdrawn  through  suitable  pipes  with  stop-cocks. 
In  case  the  nitration  takes  place  in  a  centrifugal 
machine  it  is  conducted  as  follows:  One  can  of  dried 
cotton,  containing  about  16  pounds,  is  placed  at  one 
time  in  the  machine  with  about  900  pounds  of  mixed 

(6)  The  Acids.  acids,  consisting  of  3  parts  sulphuric  acid  and  1  part 

nitric  acid,  both  very  strong,  93%  and  95%  respec- 
tively. The  mixed  acids  are  drawn  from  a  large 
tank,  called  the  mixed-acid  tank.  The  spent  acids, 
after  "revivifying"  by  additions  of  "fortifying" 
acids  of  concentrated  strength,  are  let  into  the 
mixed-acid  tank. 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES.  125 

(c)  Nitration.  The  charge  is  kept  in  the  centrifugal  machine 

about  30  minutes.  In  becoming  nitrated  the  cotton 
increases  in  weight  about  one-half;  the  16  pounds  of 
cellulose  giving  about  24  pounds  of  nitrocellulose. 
The  degree  of  nitration  is  about  12.6%  of  N.  During 
the  30  minutes  the  charge  is  turned  over  and  over 
by  iron  hooks. 

(d)  Drawing  off  After  30  minutes  the  drain-cocks  of  the  machine 
Spent  Acid.        are  opened,  the  machine  is  started,  and  the  spent 

acids  are  forced  out  by  centrifugal  action. 

4.  PURIFICATION. 

The  remainder  of  the  process  has  for  its  object 
getting  rid  of  the  free  acids  remaining  in  the  nitrated 
cotton  and  of  the  nitro-by-products. 

The  nitrated  cotton  is  taken  at  once  from  the 
nitrating  machine,  and  immersed  or  drowned  in  a 
large  quantity  of  pure  cold  water.  It  is  kept  im- 
mersed in  this  water  for  8  hours,  two  changes  of 
water  being  made. 

From  the  drowning-tanks  the  cotton  is  taken  to 
another  centrifugal  machine.  The  machine  is  started 
as  soon  as  the  charge  is  in  it,  and  while  it  is  revolv- 
ing cold  water  is  played  on  it  from  a  hose.  After 
about  ten  minutes  the  washing  is  discontinued,  and 
the  machine  then  revolved  at  its  highest  capacity 
and  the  cotton  wrung  as  dry  as  possible. 

About  1000  pounds  are  allowed  to  accumulate 
from  the  foregoing  operations,  and  this  constitutes 
a  factory  "lot." l  This  lot  receives  a  definite  number 
which  attaches  to  it  throughout  its  existence.  In 
connection  with  this  number  all  subsequent  purifi- 
cation operations,  stability-  and  ballistic-tests  are 
recorded. 

(c)  Purifying-tanks.  These  are  large  wooden  tanks,  having  steam- 
pipes  arranged  over  the  bottom.  Steam  circulates 
through  these  pipes  and  keeps  the  cotton  and  water 
at  the  desired  temperature.  Pure  water  is  put  in 


(a)  Drowning. 


(6)  First  Washing. 


1  The  size  of  the  "  lot  "  of  different  factories  varies. 


126  NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

(d)  First  Purifica-    the  tanks  and  one  lot  added.      The  lot  is  kept  in 

tion.  the   purifying-tank  for  two  days,  the  temperature 

being  maintained  at  80°  C.,  except  that  the  water 
is  renewed  three  times  during  this  period,  and  at 
each  renewal  the  temperature  is  raised  to  100°  C. 
for  two  hours.  The  mass  is  kept  agitated  by  revolv- 
ing arms  set  at  different  angles. 

In  some  factories  the  purification  consists  of 
alternate  two-hour  washings  at  80°  and  100°  C., 
with  renewal  of  water  each  time  to  include  five 
renewals. 

(e)  Second  Washing.       From  the  purifying-tanks  the  nitrated  cotton  is 

taken  to  a  centrifugal  machine,  where  it  is  washed 
with  pure  cold  water  from  a  hose  for  a  few  minutes. 
It  then  goes  to  the  pulper. 

(/)  Pulper.  This  is  the  ordinary  pulping-machine  used  in 

paper-mills.  It  consists  of  an  oval-shaped  vat 
or  tank,  with  a  horizontal  shaft  across  its  nar- 
rowest dimension.  On  one  end  of  this  shaft  is  a 
drum,  which  has  on  its  outer  surface  a  series  of 
parallel  knife-edges.  Directly  below  the  drum  is  a 
concentric  surface,  with  a  second  series  of  knife- 
edges.  The  clearance  between  these  edges  can  be 
regulated.  Pure  water  circulates  slowly  through  the 
vat,  running  in  at  one  point  and  overflowing  at 
another.  About  1000  pounds  of  cotton  from  the 
purifying-tank  is  placed  at  one  time  in  the  pulper. 
The  contents  of  the  vat  are  submitted  to  an  acid 
color-test  from  time  to  time,  and  sufficient  sodium 
carbonate  is  added  to  neutralize  any  free  acid  that 
may  be  liberated  as  the  pulping  proceeds.  The 
drum  revolving  pulls  the  cotton  down  and  forces 
it  between  the  two  series  of  knife-edges,  cutting  it 
finer  and  finer  until  the  whole  mass  is  a  smooth, 
even,  fine  pulp,  about  the  consistency  of  corn  meal; 
this  requires  about  six  hours.  From  the  pulper  the 
cotton  goes  to  the  poacher. 

(gr)  Poacher.  This  is  a  vat  similar  to  the  pulper  in  form,  but 

it  has  no  knife-edges.  The  horizontal  shaft  across 
its  narrow  part  carries  only  wooden  paddles.  The 
object  of  the  machine  is  simply  to  continue  the 
washing,  with  a  view  to  removing  all  free  acid  or 


PROGRESSIVE   EXPLOSIVES.  127 

alkali.  The  contents  are  tested  for  both  acid  and 
alkali  as  the  poaching  proceeds.  The  operation  is 
continued  until  the  lot  is  shown  to  be  free  from  acid 
and  alkali.  A  chemical  stability-test  is  now  made. 
Further  treatment  depends  on  its  result.  Another 
form  of  poacher  consists  of  large,  deep,  cylindrical 
vats,  with  a  propeller-shaped  wheel  on  a  vertical 
axis  near  its  bottom.  Steam-pipes  may  be  placed 
over  the  bottom,  and  the  mass  subjected  to  the 

(h)  Second  Purifica-  action  of    boiling  water  and  rewashing  with  cold 

lion.  water,  as  in  the  purifying-vats.     The  propeller  keeps 

the  mass  circulating.     The  process  should  continue 

for  three  days,  having  twelve  changes  of  water  and 

two  hours'  boiling  with  each  change. 

(i)  Third  and  Final  From  the  poacher,  as  just  described,  the  cotton 
Washing.  is  dumped  into  a  large  volume  of  pure  cold  water, 

which  is  contained  in  a  large  trough.  Through  the 
trough  circulates  an  endless  belt  of  coarse  cotton 
cloth,  which  passes  between  two  rollers  at  some 
distance  outside  of  the  trough.  As  the  belt  moves 
through  the  mass  of  suspended  cotton  a  certain 
quantity  adheres  to  it,  and  the  belt  carries  this  up 
through  the  rollers,  which  squeeze  out  the  surplus 
water,  and  a  scraper  detaches  the  squeezed  cotton 
from  the  belt  and  it  falls  into  receptacles  placed  to 
receive  it  on  the  other  side  of  the  rollers.  It  is 

(/)  now  in  the  form  of  small  thin  flakes.  It  contains 

about  4%  of  water.  This  is  submitted  to  careful 
laboratory  tests. 

5.    COLLOIDIZATION. 

(a)  Dehydrating.  This   product  is  taken  to  the  dehydrating-press. 

The  water  is  extracted  by  means  of  alcohol;  the 
latter  displacing  the  water.  The  alcohol  thus  mixed 
with  the  cotton  is  sufficient  to  accomplish  its  col- 
loidization  when  mixed  with  ether  in  the  next 
operation.  In  extracting  the  water,  15  pounds  of 
nitrocotton  is  placed  in  the  cylinder  of  the  dehy- 
drating-press, and  submitted  to  a  pressure  of  3000 
pounds  per  square  inch,  which  forms  it  into  a 
cylindrical  "cheese."  A  large  quantity  of  water 
is  pressed  out  by  this  pressure,  but  some  still 


128 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


remains.  A  quantity  of  alcohol  is  let  into  the 
press  cylinder.  Air  is  admitted  over  the  alcohol, 
and  a  pressure  of  100  pounds  per  square  inch  put 
on.  This  forces  the  alcohol  through  the  mass  of 
the  cheese,  and  the  liquid  flows  out  through  a 
pipe  below;  first  water  comes,  then  a  mixture  of 
water  and  alcohol,  and,  finally,  alcohol  of  full 
strength.  A  pressure  of  3000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  is 
again  put  on  the  cheese,  and  this  forces  out  surplus 
alcohol.  Enough  remains  for  colloiding.  The 
cheese  now  weighs  about  17  Ibs.,  15  Ibs.  of  cotton 
and  2  Ibs.  of  alcohol. 

(6)    Colloiding.  From   the   dehydrating-presses    the    product   is 

taken  to  the  colloiding-machine.  This  consists  of  an 
ordinary  bread-dough  kneading-machine,  as  used  in 
large  bakeries.  Three  cheeses  from  the  dehydrating- 
press  are  broken  up  and  put  into  the  kneader  with 
about  one-half  the  weight  of  ether.  The  kneader 
is  started,  and  the  mixing  continues  until  all  of 
the  ether  is  absorbed,  which,  as  a  rule,  requires 
about  two  hours.  When  the  colloiding  is  finished, 
the  charge  from  the  mixing-machine  is  pressed 
into  a  cake  by  hydraulic  pressure.  This  cake  is 
a  cylinder  about  9"  X 14".  The  product  should  now 
be  a  smooth,  compact  colloid,  with  a  clear  amber 
or  light  brown  color.  Some  few  white  spots  seen 
in  the  colloid  cake  are  air-bubbles.  To  get  rid  of 
these  air-bubbles  and  to  blend  better  the  colloid,  the 
cake  is  put  through  the  macaroni  press. 

6.  GRANULATION. 

(a)  Macaroni  This  is  an  hydraulic  press,  having  small  holes 

Press.  in  the  bottom  of  its  cylinder.  The  colloid  is  forced 

by  the  pressure  through  these  small  holes,  and  falls 
in  a  receptacle  below  in  macaroni-like  strings.  These 
are  collected  and  put  into  the  final  press,  and 
pressed  into  the  final  powder-cake. 

(6)  Die-press.  The  powder-cake  is  put  through  the  die-press, 

from  which  it  emerges  in  the  form  of  a  continuous 
cord-  or  rope-like  cylinder,  of  the  diameter  of  the 
powder-grain  being  made,  and  with  the  requisite 
perforations.  This  result  is  accomplished  by  having 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES. 


129 


the  end  of  the  press  a  cone,  and  fitted  into  the 
apex  of  the  cone  is  a  die,  with  needles  of  proper 
size  for  the  perforations.  The  press  is  horizontal. 
The  head  forces  the  colloid  to  fill  the  cone  and  sur- 
round the  needles.  Continued  pressure  forces  the 
colloid  out  through  the  die ;  it  is  received  on  rollers, 
carried  thereon  to  the  end  of  a  long  table,  at  which 
point  a  revolving  disk-cutter  cuts  the  rope  into 
grains  of  proper  lengths.  The  die  can  be  changed 
so  that  one  press  may  turn  out  many  sizes  of  grain. 

7.  DRYING. 

(a)  Solvent  The  grains  from  the  powder-press  are  collected 

Recovery.  in  suitable  cases  and  taken  to  the  solvent-recovery 
house.  At  this  house  the  grains  are  placed  in  certain 
receptacles,  and  hot  air  forced  up  through  them. 
This  hot  air  carries  off  the  greater  part  of  the  solvent, 
the  grains  shrinking  and  shrivelling  in  the  process. 
The  air,  laden  with  the  vapors  of  alcohol  and  ether, 
passes  to  an  elaborate  refrigerating-apparatus,  in 
which  the  two  vapors  are  separately  condensed  and 
collected.  The  process  takes  about  8  hours.  About 
60%  of  the  solvent  should  be  recovered,  but  this 
degree  of  efficiency  is  rarely  attained. 

(6)  Dry-house.  The  powder  is  then  taken  to  the  dry-house,  where 

it  is  kept  from  two  to  four  months  in  a  drying  tem- 
perature of  100°  to  105°  F.i 

1  The  methods  heretofore  employed  for  drying  smokeless  powders, — that 
is,  the  removal  of  moisture  and  of  excess  solvent,  have  required  long  periods, 
from  one  to  four  months,  after  the  powder  is  grained  and  before  it  can  be 
issued  or  used.  Various  methods  of  shortening  this  period  have  been  inves- 
tigated. Abnormally  elevated  temperature  air-drying  has  a  tendency  to 
injure  the  grains  and  may  destroy  them. 

Of  the  other  methods  proposed,  "  water-drying  "  has  been  the  one  giving 
best  promise,  and  since  the  outbreak  of  the  European  war,  this  process  has 
been  largely  used  by  many  manufacturers,  because  of  the  urgent  need  for 
prompt  deliveries. 

This  process  consists  of  immersing  the  powder, — either  with  or  without 
prior  solvent-recovery,  in  water,  where  it  remains  for  a  period  varying  from 
a  few  days  to  two  weeks,  depending  upon  the  degree  of  urgency  of  require- 
ments, etc.  The  water  is  generally  cold  at  first  and  raised  more  or  less  gradu- 
ally to  a  maximum  of  55°  to  60°  C.  Naturally,  the  shorter  the  period,  the 


130  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLCS1VES. 

All  powder  is  doubly  blended  before  being  formed  in  accept- 
ance lots. 

The  delivery  of  a  lot  of  powder  dates  from  the  completion 
of  the  blending  and  boxing  it,  at  which  time  the  powder  inspector 
of  the  Government  selects  samples  for  chemical  analysis  and 
for  ballistic  test.  Its  acceptance  depends  on  the  passage  of 
these  tests. 

Powder  is  shipped  in  zinc-lined  boxes  containing,  approxi- 
mately, 100  pounds.  Each  box  is  marked  with  the  number  of 
the  lot,  maker's  initials,  year,  gun  intended  for,  muzzle-velocity, 
pressure,  and  granulation. 

General  Remarks  on  Smokeless  Powders. 

Powder,  such  as  that  just  described,  is  a  pure  cellulose  or 
colloid  powder.  Sometimes  nitroglycerine  or  certain  metallic 
nitrates  are  added  to  the  colloid  in  the  mixing,  with  a  view  to 
giving  a  better  ballistic  effect.  These  substances  when  added 
are  to  be  considered  as  distributed  throughout  the  mass  of 

more  heating  is  required  for  powder  with  an  equal  amount  of  solvent.  Too 
severe  heating  of  water  injures  the  grains,  especially  large  ones.  The  action 
of  the  hot  water  is  to  dilute  the  solvent,  which  by  this  action  and  subsequent 
wringing  in  a  centrifugal,  is  mostly  removed  from  the  powder.  Thereafter, 
a  period  of  air-drying  is  needed  to  remove  the  moisture,  and  this  period,  while 
preferably  about  two  weeks  with  moderate  temperature,  is  sometimes  made 
quite  short  by  using  higher  temperature. 

By  what  may  be  called  a  conservative  water-drying  process,  therefore, 
cannon  powders  may  be  completely  dried  in  about  one  month,  while  some 
private  manufacturers  are  now  drying  small-grain  powders  in  a  few  days. 
Powders  dried  in  water  have  a  whitish  or  milky  appearance,  but  do  not  differ 
markedly  in  other  physical  aspects  from  air-dried  powders.  Tests  applied 
are  of  the  same  nature  and  for  powders  conservatively  dried  in  water,  give 
about  the  same  results  as  for  air-dried  powders. 

Some  samples  of  considerable  age  are  still  stable,  but  not  sufficiently  long 
observation  of  such  powders  has  been  had  to  demonstrate  fully  their  keeping 
qualities. 

This  process  is  therefore  still  regarded  as  one  to  be  used  for  quantity 
manufacture  only  in  time  of  need,  and  when  the  powder  may  be  expected  to 
be  consumed  within  a  reasonable  period, — for  which  conditions  its  value 
is  proven. 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES.  131 

the  colloid:  the  nitroglycerine  like  water  in  a  sponge,  the 
metallic  nitrates  like  particles  of  sand,  or  earth,  in  ice  made 
from  muddy  water.  •  They  are  not  essentials;  they  are  added  to 
modify  the  character  of  the  explosion  in  the  bore  of  a  gun. 

The  ballistic  efficiency  of  a  powder  may  be  represented  by 
the  ratio: 

Velocity  given  to  projectile  in  f.  s. 

Pressure  in  tons  per  sq.  in.  in  bore 

It  is  desirable  that  this  ratio  should  have  a  maximum  value. 

The  strength  of  guns  now  in  use  limits  the  denominator  to 
about  16  to  18. 

With  this  limitation  muzzle-velocity  for  a  given  projectile 
is  dependent  on  the  rate  of  burning  of  the  powder,  its  quantity, 
and  the  length  of  bore. 

Under  existing  conditions,  including  kind  of  powder  and 
capacity  of  powder  chambers,  a  muzzle-velocity  of  about 
2300  f.  s.  is  had  in  guns  having  bores  about  35  calibers  long, 
about  2600  f.  s.  in  guns  having  bores  about  40  calibers  long, 
and  2800  to  3000  f.  s.  in  guns  having  bores  about  50  calibers 
long. 

It  has  been  universally  thought  desirable,  heretofore,  to  so 
design  a  nitro-powder  that  the  carbon  would  all  burn  to  carbon 
dioxide.  Lately  this  has  been  questioned  by  Mendeleef,  who 
advances  the  claim  that  the  best  results  with  progressive  ex- 
plosives are  to  be  had  when  the  carbon  is  burned  to  CO  instead 
of  C02,  for  the  reason  that  a  given  weight  of  carbon  will  give 
double  volume  of  CO  compared  with  C02  at  same  pressure  and 
temperature,  and  this  will  be  more  efficient  in  a  gun  than  the  in- 
crease of  volume  due  to  the  increased  temperature  in  burning  to 
C02-  Furthermore,  the  higher  temperature  of  the  products  of 
explosion  when  C  is  burned  to  C02  is  so  destructive  to  the 
metal  of  the  bore  of  guns  by  erosion  as  to  make  such  explosives 
less  desirable. 

For  example,  military  guncotton  has  insufficient  oxygen  to 
burn  all  of  its  C  to  C02,  and  nitroglycerine  has  an  excess  of 


132  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

oxygen.  By  mixing  these  two  substances  in  proper  proportions 
the  excess  of  oxygen  in  the  explosion  of  the  latter  supplies  the 
deficiency  of  oxygen  in  the  explosion  of  the  former,  and  the 
products  of  explosion  of  the  mixture  are  C02,  H20,  and  N. 

The  English  smokeless  powder,  cordite,  is  an  illustration  of 
such  a  combination;  it  is  composed  of 

Guncotton  (acetone  colloided) 37  parts 

Nitroglycerine 58     il 

Vaselin 5    " 

100 

It  gives  high  muzzle-velocities  with  low  pressures,  but  the 
temperature  of  its  explosion  is  very  high  comparatively,  and 
has  caused  thereby  such  rapid  erosion  of  the  bores  of  English 
guns  as  to  cause  it  to  be  discarded  in  favor  of  a  powder  with 
less  nitroglycerine,  about  38  per  cent. 

The  celebrated  French  BN  powder  had  barium  and  potas- 
sium nitrate. 

The  explosion  of  such  powders  containing  an  oxygen  carrier 
disseminated  throughout  the  mass  of  the  colloided  nitrocellu- 
lose, appears  to  be  more  prolonged  and  increasing  in  its  effect 
than  that  of  the  pure  colloid  powders. 

Based  on  the  foregoing  considerations  nitrocellulose  powders 
may  be  classified  as  follows : 

I.  PURE  COLLOIDS. 

(a)  Acetone  colloids.  Composed  of  nitrocellulose  of  high  nitra- 
tion colloided  in  acetone.  Such  colloids  are  brittle,  and 
apt  to  disintegrate  under  pressure  in  the  bores  of  gun, 
giving  excessive  pressures.  They  are  dangerous. 

(6)  Ether-alcohol  colloids.  Composed  of  nitrocellulose  of  mean 
nitration  colloided  in  ether-alcohol.  Such  colloids  are 
tough  and  elastic,  and  do  not  break  up  under  pressure 
in  the  bores  of  guns. 


PROGRESSIVE  EXPLOSIVES. 


133 


II.  COMPOSITE  COLLOIDS. 

(a)  Acetone  colloid  for  matrix  with  nitroglycerine. 
(6)  Acetone  colloid  for  matrix  with  metallic  nitrate. 

(c)  Ether-alcohol  colloid  for  matrix  with  nitroglycerine. 

(d)  Ether-alcohol  colloid  for  matrix  with  metallic  nitrate. 

(e)  Acetone  colloid  for  matrix  with  organic  nitrate. 

(/)  Ether-alcohol  colloid  for  matrix  with  organic  nitrate. 

Some  examples  of  these  types  of  powders  are  given  in  the 
following  table: 


PURE  COLLOIDS. 


ACETONE. 


ETHER-ALCOHOL. 


Maxim-Schupphaus.  Mendeleef. 

Guncotton 80 .  Pyrocellulose,  C30H38(NO2)12O26,  con- 

Nitrocellulose  (sol.) 19.5  tains  12.4  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 

Urea 0.5 

Powder  for    U.  8.   Army  and  Navy 

100.0  (Cannon). 

Poudre  B  (Vieille's  Powder}.  Nitrocellulose  containing  not   less 

Guncotton 68.21  than  12.60  per  cent  of  nitrogen 

Nitrocellulose  (sol.) 29.79  ±0.1  per  cent. 

Paraffin 2.00 

U.  8.  Army  and  Navy  (Small  Arms). 

100.00        Pyrocellulose. 

Rifleite. 

Guncotton 75. 

Nitrocellulose  (sol.) 22 . 48 

Nitrobenzene 2 . 52 

100.00 

Indurite. 

Guncotton 40. 

Nitrobenzene 60. 

100. 

Swiss  Normal  Powder. 

Guncotton 96 . 21 

Nitrocellulose  (sol.) 1 . 80 

Resin 1.99 

100.00 


134 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


COMPOSITE  COLLOIDS. 


METALLIC   NITRATES   AND    NITRO- 

DERIVATIVES    OF   THE   AROMATIC 

SERIES. 

Plastomenite. 

Nitrocellulose  (N  =  12.33%)  67 . 18 

Barium  nitrate 9 . 76 

Di-nitro-toluene.  .  22.06 


Poudre  BN. 

Guncotton 

Nitrocellulose 

Barium  nitrate 

Potassium  nitrate.  . 
Sodium  carbonate.  . 
Solvents,  etc 


Schultze. 

Guncotton 

Nitrocellulose.  . . . 

Cellulose 

Barium  nitrate.  . . 
Potassium  nitrate. 

Paraffin 

Solvents,  etc 


E.  C.  Powder. 

Guncotton 

Nitrocellulose 

Cellulose 

Potassium  and  barium  ni- 
trates  

Resins,  etc 


38.67 

33.23 

18.74 

4.54 

3.65 

1.29 


32.66 

27.71 

1.63 

27.62 

2.47 

4.20 

1.48 


28.35 

27.95 

3.15 

37.80 

2.75 


NITROGLYCERINEc 


Ballistite. 

Guncotton 

Nitroglycerine. . 
Diphenylamine. 

Cordite. 

Guncotton 

Nitroglycerine. . 
Vaselin.  . 


Maxim-Schupphaus. 

Guncotton 

Nitrocellulose.  . . . 
Nitroglycerine. . . . 
Urea. . 


50 

49 

1 


37 

58 

5 


80 

10 

9 

1 


V.     • 
DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES. 

(a)  Guncotton. 

As  already  explained  guncotton  is  nitrocellulose  of  high 
nitration,  containing  above  12.9  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  Its 
manufacture  has  been  described  in  connection  with  the  manufac- 
ture of  smokeless  powder.  The  degree  of  nitration  is  regulated 
by  the  relative  quantities  of  water,  sulphuric  acid,  and  nitric  acid 
used  in  the  nitrating  bath,  the  time  and  temperature  of  the 
steeping.  The  purification  of  guncotton  for  disruptive  military 
uses  is  accomplished  in  the  same  manner  as  described  for 
nitrocellulose  used  in  the  manufacture  of  smokeless  powder. 

In  manufacturing  guncotton  for  military  purposes,  purified 
pulp,  produced  as  explained  under  the  head  of  manufacture 
of  smokeless  powder  is  taken  from  the  poacher  to  a  stuff-chest 
by  suction.  This  consists  of  a  large  vat  with  air-tight  top. 
Through  the  centre  of  the  vat  passes  a  vertical  shaft,  on  which 
are  mounted  a  number  of  feathered  paddles.  After  the  purified 
pulp  has  been  sucked  up  into  the  stuff-chest  it  is  kept  agitated 
by  these  paddles,  so  that  the  pulp  will  be  kept  evenly  dis- 
tributed in  suspension  throughout  the  liquid. 

From  the  stuff-chest  the  pulp  is  drawn  into  the  moulding- 
press.  This  is  an  hydraulic  press  made  of  bronze  and  containing 
moulds.  The  pulp  is  run  into  these  moulds,  and  the  pres- 
sure applied  for  about  four  minutes.  The  mould-press  blocks 
are  taken  to  the  final  press,  placed  in  the  moulds  of  the  final 

135 


136  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

press,  and  the  pressure  applied,  increasing  from  a  minimum 
of  6000  to  a  maximum  of  7000  pounds  per  square  inch,  through 
an  interval  of  about  three  minutes;  the  highest  pressure  is 
maintained  for  one  minute. 

The  blocks  as  they  come  from  the  final  press  contain  about 
15  per  cent  of  water.  While  in  the  press  they  are  stamped  with 
the  name  of  the  factory,  the  lot  and  year.  Before  being  issued 
for  storage  or  service  they  should  be  soaked  in  pure  water  until 
they  contain  about  35  per  cent  of  water. 

In  order  to  get  dry  guncotton  for  primers  a  block  of  wet 
guncotton  is  split  up  into  one-half  inch  sections;  these  are 
strung  on  a  copper  or  brass  wire  or  tube  separating  the  sections 
from  each  other,  and  exposed  to  a  drying  atmosphere  out  of 
direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The  sections  should  be  weighed  from 
time  to  time,  and  the  drying  should  continue  until  the  weights 
are  constant. 

While,  theoretically,  183.3  pounds  of  guncotton  (trinitro- 
cellulose)  or  176  pounds  of  endeca-nitrocellulose  (Vieille's) 
should  be  obtained  from  100  pounds  of  cellulose,  in  practice  the 
yield  is  about  105  pounds  of  guncotton  to  100  pounds  of  unni- 
trated  cotton;  this  makes  about  230  blocks. 

After  nitrating  and  before  pulping,  guncotton  retains  the 
complete  cotton  structure ;  even  under  the  microscope  no  differ- 
ence is  to  be  detected  between  nitrated  and  unnitrated  cotton. 
The  only  outward  evidences  of  the  change  is  the  rough  feeling 
it  has,  the  crackling  sound  when  rubbed  between  the  fingers,  and 
its  electrical  properties,  sticking  to  the  fingers  if  rubbed  between 
them.  Rubbed  in  the  dark,  dry  guncotton  is  to  some  extent 
phosphorescent. 

It  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  unnitrated  cotton  by 
treating  with  solution  of  iodine  in  potassium  iodide,  and  sub- 
sequently moistening  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Unnitrated 
cotton,  when  so  treated,  gives  a  blue  color;  nitrated  cotton,  a 
yellow. 

Dry  guncotton  varies  in  color  from  white  to  light  yellow. 
The  yellow  is  often  an  indication  of  sodium  carbonate.  Some- 


DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES.  137 

times,  there  is  a  brownish  or  reddish  shade ;  this  is  due,  as  a  rule, 
to  iron,  from  the  washing-water. 

When  pure,  it  is  without  color,  odor,  or  taste,  and  free  from 
either  alkaline  or  acid  reaction. 

The  density  of  unpulped  dry  cotton  is  about  0.1;  after 
pulping,  about  0.8;  and  in  the  block  form  after  compression, 
about  1.2.  The  absolute  specific  gravity  of  guncotton  is  1.5. 

It  is  insoluble  in  both  hot  and  cold  water  and  in  alcohol, 
ether,  and  ether-alcohol,  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

It  is  soluble  in  acetone,  acetic  ether,  and  in  a  number  of 
the  nitro-derivatives  of  the  aromatic  hydrocarbons. 

It  is  insoluble  in  nitroglycerine;  but  both  guncotton  and 
nitroglycerine  dissolve  in  acetone,  and  a  combined  colloid  may 
be  obtained  by  dissolving  them  in  this  solvent  and  then  evap- 
orating the  common  solvent.  Soluble  nitrocellulose  is  partly 
soluble  in  nitroglycerine,  and  explosive  gelatine  is  based  on  this 
property. 

Guncotton  is  completely  decomposed  by  boiling  in  a  solution 
of  any  alkaline  sulphide,  while  unnitrated  cotton  is  not;  this 
principle  is  used  in  analyzing  guncotton. 

Caustic  potash  solution,  with  alcohol  added,  decomposes  gun- 
cotton  almost  instantly. 

For  disruptive  purposes,  guncotton  is  used  to  fill  the  cavities 
of  shell,  to  charge  torpedoes,  and  for  demolitions  of  all  kinds. 
For  these  purposes,  it  is  pressed  by  hydraulic  pressure  while  in 
the  wet  state,  in  the  form  of  purified  pulp,  into  suitable  disks, 
blocks,  or  special  forms.  It  is  not  colloided. 

Its  value  as  a  disruptive  agent  rests  upon  its  great  force, 
and  its  safety  in  handling,  storage,  and  manufacture. 

While  many  disastrous  explosions  have  occurred  with  it  in 
the  past,  none  have  of  late  years;  and  the  fact  that  it  is  kept 
in  storage  in  the  wet  state  in  which  it  is  non-explosive,  except 
with  a  powerful  detonator  or  a  small  piece  of  dry  guncotton, 
makes  it  less  likely  to  accidental  or  spontaneous  explosion  than 
any  other  explosive  now  used. 

If   properly  purified,    guncotton  may   be   kept   for   years, 


138  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

even  in  the  dry  state,  without  the  slightest  deterioration.  If 
not  purified  completely,  some  of  the  nitro-by-products  may 
decompose,  and  these  initiate  a  progressive  decomposition  of  a 
mass  of  guncotton.  If,  however,  the  gases  generated  in  such 
decomposition  are  free  to  pass  off,  the  mass  will  quietly  disin- 
tegrate. The  first  evidences  of  decomposition  are  acid  fumes. 
These  may  be  recognized  by  their  pungent  odor,  or,  if  a  piece  of 
moist,  blue  litmus  paper  be  confined  with  a  mass  of  guncotton 
thought  to  be  in  the  state  of  incipient  decomposition,  it  will 
soon  be  reddened.  As  its  decomposition  progresses,  the  fumes 
become  more  copious  and  may  be  seen  as  the  reddish-brown 
gas,  N02  (nitric  peroxide).  At  the  same  time,  the  mass  begins 
to  show  soft,  pasty,  yellow  spots,  which  extend  and  coalesce 
until  the  whole  mass  is  soft  and  pasty;  and,  in  connection  with 
the  escape  of  gas,  the  mass  shrinks  in  volume.  As  the  process 
proceeds,  other  gases  than  N02  pass  off.  The  residue  is  an 
amorphous,  porous,  sugar-like  substance,  almost  entirely  soluble 
in  water.  As  long  as  the  gases  escape  and  the  heat  developed 
by  the  reactions  is  carried  off  with  them,  there  is  no  danger 
of  explosion;  but  if  the  gases  cannot  escape,  the  pressure  in- 
creases, the  heat  is  retained,  the  reaction  is  accelerated,  the 
temperature  rises,  and  ultimately  an  explosion  may  result  from 
these  causes. 

In  the  case  of  a  mass  of  decomposing  guncotton,  it  should 
be  spread  out,  exposed  to  the  air,  out  of  the  sun,  and  wetted 
with  water. 

While  nitrocellulose  is  one  of  the  safest  explosives  known 
and,  when  carefully  purified,  is  not  liable  to  decomposition, 
still  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  it  is  an  explosive,  and  due 
care  in  handling  and  storing  it  should  be  observed. 

Some  authorities  claim  that  strong  light  will  act  slowly 
to  originate  the  decomposition  of  nitrocellulose;  but  Abel, 
who  made  searching  investigation  of  this  matter,  says 
that  "  guncotton  produced  from  properly  purified  cotton  may 
be  exposed  to  diffused  daylight,  either  .in  the  open  air  or  in 
closed  vessels,  for  very  long  periods,  without  undergoing  any 


DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES,  139 

change.  The  preservation  under  these  conditions  has  been  per- 
fect after  three  and  one-half  years."  But  long-continued  expo- 
sure of  dry  guncotton  to  the  direct  rays  of  strong  sunlight  pro- 
duces a  very  gradual  change.  If  moist  guncotton  be  exposed 
to  sunlight,  it  is  affected  to  some  greater  extent  than  dry 
guncotton,  but  the  change  is  very  small  even  after  several 
months'  exposure  to  sunjight  in  a  glass  bottle. 

It  has  been  found  that  guncotton,  exposed  to  the  sunlight 
without  confinement,  has  had  its  stability,  as  determined  by 
the  heat-test,  improved.  This  would  seem  to  suggest  that  the 
action  of  sunlight  decomposes  the  unstable  nitro-by-products, 
and  the  escape  of  these  into  the  air  slowly  leaves  the  nitro- 
cellulose proper  in  a  purer  and  more  stable  state.  Indeed, 
the  evolution  of  acid  fumes  from  a  nitrocellulose  exposed  to 
strong,  diffused  light  would  be  evidence  of  incomplete  purifi- 
cation. 

Instructions  for  blending  or  drying  smokeless  powders  re- 
quire that  the  operation  be  performed  out  of  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun. 

Heat  of  sufficient  degree,  of  course,  disintegrates  the  nitro- 
cellulose molecule;  but  nitrocellulose  of  either  high  or  low 
nitration,  that  has  been  properly  purified,  will  stand  a  tem- 
perature approaching  130°  F.  without  change.1 

Water  or  a  damp  atmosphere  serves  to  protect  nitrocellulose 
from  the  disintegrating  effect  of  heat  (not  .light).  A  guncotton 
stored  in  water  or  in  damp  magazines  is  able  to  withstand, 

1  "  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  no  nitre-corn  pound  will  stand  heating 
to  temperatures  above  160°  F.  for  any  prolonged  period.  At  194°  F.,  even 
the  best  and  purest  product  is  sure  to  decompose  within  a  few  hours,  and 
even  pure  guncotton  cannot  be  exposed  to  a  temperature  above  122°  F., 
without  impairing  its  capability  of  subsequently  standing  the  heat-test.  It 
is  true,  decomposition  may  not  take  place  at  this  temperature,  and  that  the 
product  may  be  kept  indefinitely  without  decomposition  under  favorable 
conditions;  but  whenever  it  is  again  subjected  to  the  heat-test  at  160°  F., 
it  will  at  once  give  a  distinct  reaction.  In  general,  it  would  appear  that 
only  the  most  perfect  products  will  stand  a  temperature  of  113°  to  122°  F. 
for  some  months  without  impairing  their  capability  of  standing  the  heat- 
test  . ' ' GUTTM  ANN. 


140  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

without  change,  temperatures  as  high  as  200°  F.  for  long  periods. 
This  property  renders  guncotton  a  desirable  explosive  in  hot, 
damp  climates.  Water  not  only  protects  the  nitrocellulose 
proper  from  the  disintegrating  action  of  heat,  but  also  the  nitro- 
by-products  present  in  incompletely  purified  nitrocellulose. 

To  be  non-explosive,  it  is  only  necessary  that  the  guncotton 
be  damp;  nitrocellulose,  with  only  the  water  left  in  it  after 
coming  from  the  centrifugal  wringer,  is  not  to  be  exploded  by 
fire  or  ordinary  shock. 

Guncotton  made  for  disruptive  purposes  contains,  as  a  rule, 
a  small  amount  of  carbonate  of  sodium;  this,  disseminated 
through  the  mass  of  the  cotton,  tends  to  neutralize  any 
free  acid  that  may  be  formed  in  storage.  It  would  not  be 
desirable  to  have  it  in  finished  smokeless  powder,  as  it 
would  increase  the  solid  residue  in  guns  and  cause  some 
smoke. 

Guttmann  is  opposed  to  the  use  of  sodium  carbonate  in 
guncotton  even  to  neutralize  free  acid  due  to  incomplete 
purification  or  incipient  decomposition.  If  the  guncotton  is 
properly  purified,  there  is  no  reason  why  there  should  be  free 
acid,  or  why  decomposition  should  take  place;  and  if  decom- 
position should  begin,  the  action  of  the  carbonate  would  only 
neutralize  the  first  gases  given  off,  it  would  not  arrest  the  pro- 
cess: indeed,  alkalies  have  a  tendency  to  decompose  nitro- 
cellulose at  temperatures  above  86°  F.  It  is  not  desirable  to 
check  incipient  decomposition  by  sodium  carbonate;  on  the 
contrary,  if  incipient  decomposition  takes  place,  it  is  desirable 
that  the  gases  given  off  should  pass  off  and  serve  themselves 
to  give  evidence  of  the  condition  existing.  "At  ordinary  tem- 
peratures— that  is,  those  occurring  under  normal  circumstances 
of  storage  and  carriage — decomposition  of  guncotton,  so  far  as 
present  experience  goes,  is  out  of  question." 

Cold  has  no  effect  on  dry  guncotton.  The  compressed  cakes 
and  disks  are  caused  to  flake  off  on  the  surfaces  if  wet  and  exposed 
to  freezing  and  thawing,  and  the  freezing  also  causes  the  mass 
of  the  cake  or  disk  to  open  out  and  be  less  compact. 


DETONA TING  EXPLOSIVES,  141 

Variations  of  temperature  between  105°  F.  and  32°  F.  have 
no  effect  on  either  the  physical  or  chemical  conditions  of  gun- 
cotton. 

Guncotton,  even  when  dry,  is  not  liable  to  explode  by  blow 
or  friction,  unless  very  closely  confined  and  compressed.  For 
example,  in  order  to  explode  by  a  blow  a  piece  of  guncotton, 
it  is  necessary  to  take  a  small  piece,  wrap  it  tightly  in  tin- 
foil, place  on  an  anvil,  tap  it  two  or  three  times  lightly  to 
compress  it,  then  strike  it  a  heavy  blow.  Shells  filled  with 
disks  of  dry  compressed  guncotton  have  been  fired  from 
guns  into  masonry  at  fifty  yards  from  the  gun  without  ex- 
plosion. 

Flame,  or  metal  heated  to  red  or  white  heat,  will  ignite 
guncotton.  Its  rate  of  burning  is  affected  by  the  degree  of  con- 
finement and  physical  state  of  the  mass:  if  woven  into  wicks 
or  compact  cloth,  the  rate  is  much  reduced;  if  compressed 
while  in  the  pulped  state  into  compact  blocks,  its  rate  is  also 
reduced.  Burning  guncotton  may  be  extinguished  by  water; 
but  if  a  mass  of  considerable  size  be  burning,  it  may  be  quenched 
on  the  exterior  and  continue  to  burn  in  the  interior.  Wet  gun- 
cotton  in  any  form  cannot  be  ignited  by  flame.  A  wet  disk  of 
guncotton  thrown  into  a  fire  will  first  dry  out  on  the  outer  sur- 
face and  burn  there,  and  continue  this  progressively  until  the 
whole  disk  is  consumed.  As  much  as  a  ton  of  wet  guncotton 
has  been  consumed  in  this  way  without  the  slightest  evidence 
of  explosion. 

The  igniting-point  for  nitrocellulose  is  about  186°  C. 

The  specific  heat  of  the  gases  composing  the  products  of 
explosion  may  be  taken  approximately  at  0.28. 

The  experiments  of  Roux1  and  Sarrou  indicate  1056.3  centi- 
grade units  of  heat  given  off  by  the  explosion  of  guncotton. 
This  indicates  a  temperature  of  3700°  C.  Nobel  and  Abel  fixed 
the  temperature,  as  a  result  of  their  experiments,  at  4400°  C. 
Sarrou  and  Vieille  found  that  water  was  dissociated  at  the  tem- 
perature of  the  explosion,  all  of  the  carbon  burning  to  C02. 
Berthelot  estimates  that  guncotton  of  density  1.1,  exploded  in 


I42  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

its  own  volume,  will  give  a  pressure  of  160  tons  per  square  inch. 
The  rate  of  propagation  of  the  explosive  wave  of  guncotton 
in  rigid  tubes  has  been  found  to  be  5000  to  6000  metres  per 
second. 

Experiments  of  Professor  C.  E.  Munroe,  at  the  naval  gun- 
cotton  factory  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  have  shown  that  thoroughly 
dry  guncotton  can  be  detonated  by  three  grains  of  mercury  ful- 
minate; air-dry  guncotton,  by  five  grains,  if  the  fulminate  be 
confined  in  copper  tubes  and  the  tubes  are  in  close  contact 
with  the  cotton.  The  Navy  primers,  however,  have  35  grains 
of  mercury  fulminate  in  order  to  have  a  liberal  certainty 
factor. 

A  disk  of  guncotton  detonated  on  an  iron  plate  reproduces 
on  the  surface  of  the  plate  the  reliefs  and  depressions  on  the 
surface  of  the  disk;  a  depression  on  the  surface  of  the  disk  will 
be  reproduced  as  a  depression  on  the  surface  of  the  plate.  The 
explanation  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  erosive  effect  of  the 
rushing  gas  at  those  points  where  there  is  no  contact;  it  is  the 
same  effect  as  is  to  be  noted  near  the  bands  of  projectiles  in  the 
bores  of  guns :  the  enormous  velocities  of  the  gaseous  molecules 
impinging  on  the  metal  at  these  points,  in  connection  with  the 
weakening  of  bonds  of  cohesion  and  affinity  by  the  high  heat, 
is  thought  to  be  sufficient  to  account  for  the  phenomenon. 

The  violence  of  explosion  is  greater  in  proportion  as  the  con- 
finement is  greater;  the  maximum  being  when  confined  rigidly 
in  its  own  volume,  and,  in  accordance  with  this  principle,  tamp- 
ing increases  the  violence  of  an  explosion.  Even  the  amount  of 
air-pressure  will  have  its  effect  on  the  character  of  an  explosion; 
the  same  explosive  and  detonator  would  give  a  more  mild 
explosion  on  a  mountain- top  than  at  the  seashore. 

Wet  guncotton  gives  a  more  brusque  explosion  than  dry 
guncotton;  and  Professor  Munroe  explains  this  by  supposing 
that  the  water  in  its  pores,  being  nearly  incompressible  and 
highly  elastic,  increases  the  rate  of  propagation  of  the  explosive 
wave  or  disturbance  and  diminishes  thus  the  time  of  explosion. 

The  energy  of  the  explosive  wave  may  be  sufficient  to  initiate 


DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES.  143 

explosion  in  a  mass  placed  at  a  certain  distance  from  an  explod- 
ing mass.  This  is  called  explosion  by  influence.  Two  theories 
are  advanced  to  account  for  the  phenomenon:  One,  that  the 
explosion  is  due  to  certain  synchronous  relations  of  the  motions 
of  the  molecules  of  gas  and  the  molecules  of  guncotton, — that  a 
wave  of  certain  amplitude  and  length  passing  over  the  guncotton 
causes  "  sympathetic  "  motion  to  be  taken  up  by  the  latter, 
and  this  in  turn  accomplishes  the  disruption  of  the  guncotton 
molecule;  just  as  a  string  of  a  musical  instrument  may  be  set 
to  vibrating  by  sounding  near  it  the  note  which  gives  the  wave 
of  sound  that  correspond  to  the  string,  or  as  certain  glass  beads 
under  strain  may  be  shattered  by  musical  notes  of  certain  pitch. 
The  other  considers  that  in  all  cases  the  explosion  is  initiated 
by  the  energy  of  the  impact  of  the  molecules  in  motion, — that  there 
is  a  definite  product  of  molecular  mass  into  molecular  velocity, 
which,  if  it  be  delivered  against  a  molecule  of  guncotton,  will 
disrupt  the  molecule,  and  the  disruption  of  one  molecule  will 
disrupt  all  adjacent  molecules,  and  so  on.  As  temperature 
varies  directly  with  molecular  velocities,  an  explosive  molecule, 
for  a  given  pressure,  requires  a  given  temperature  to  disrupt  it. 

While  both  theories  have  advocates,  the  latter  is  thought  to 
be  more  generally  accepted  at  the  present  time.  Some  author- 
ities claim  that  in  all  cases  heat  initiates  explosions. 

Explosion  by  influence  may  be  illustrated  by  placing  gun- 
cotton  disks  side  by  side  at  varying  distances  apart  (J",  J", 
}",  1")  and  noting  the  effect. 

Berthelot  fixes  the  heat  of  combustion  of  guncotton  at  12 
calories  for  each  nitryl  radical,  and,  accepting  the  products  of 
explosion  as  determined  by  Sarrou  and  Vieille,  gives  the  total  heat 
of  combustion  at  633  calories  per  molecular  weight  proportion. 

Sarrou  and  Vieille  conducted  a  series  of  experiments  in 
which  guncotton  was  exploded  in  a  closed  vessel.  They  found 
the  volume  of  gases  reduced  to  0°  C.  and  760  mm.  pressure, 
to  vary  with  the  density  of  the  charge,  both  as  to  proportion 
of  each  kind  and  total  volume.  Some  of  their  results  are  given 
in  the  following  table : 


144 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


Density  of  charge 

0  01 

0  023 

0  9 

Volume  of  gases   (reduced) 
material  ... 

per 

658  5 

670  8 

682  4 

f  CO  .. 

49  3 

43  3 

37  6 

Composition  of  gases  per  100 

I  C02  
\     H.. 

21.7 
12.7 

24.6 
17  2 

27.7 
18  4 

volumes  : 

N  
ICH4  

16.3 
0.0 

15.9 
trace 

15.7 
0.6 

andN. 

From  this  it  appears  that  the  proportion  of  CO  and  N  de- 
crease, and  C02  and  H  t  increase,  as  the  density  of  charging 
increases;  also,  that  for  the  higher  charging  a  little  CH4  appears.1 

From  these  results  Berthelot  writes  out  the  following  reac- 
tion for 'the  explosion  of  guncotton  exploded  in  closed  vessels, 
under  the  ordinary  conditions  of  charging  for  disruptive  pur- 
poses, as  in  torpedoes : 

Ga4Hi8O0(HN03)ii  exploded 

-  24CO  +  24C02  -1-  17H2  +  12H20  +  11N2. 

When  guncotton  is  burned  in  the  open  air  there  is  some 
nitric  oxide  in  the  products  of  combustion,  amounting  to  about 
24  per  cent  of  the  total  volumes  of  the  product. 

(b)  Nitroglycerine. 

Nitroglycerine  is  a  nitric  ether  of  propenyl  alcohol  (com- 
monly termed  glycerine). 

Propenyl  alcohol  is  trihydric  and  may  be  written  structurally : 

H 

I 
H-0— C-H 

H— 0— C— H 

I 
H— 0— C— H 

I 
H 

or,  in  ordinary  symbols,  C3H5(HO)3. 

1  This  CH4may,  perhaps,  account  for  the  flare-backs  from  cannon  in  using 
smokeless  powder. 


DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES.  145 

The  nitric  ether  is  formed  by  replacing  the  H  of  the  HO 
radicals  by  N02,  and  theoretically  there  may  be  three  ethers, 
corresponding  to  one,  two  or  three  replacements  of  H,  forming: 
Mononi trogly cerine,  C3H5  (HO)  2ON02, 
Dinitroglycerine,1     C3H5(HO)02(N02)2, 
Trinitroglycerine,     Cs^OaCNOa^. 
Only  the  last  is  of  interest. 

The  process  of  manufacture  of  nitroglycerine  follows  in  a 
general  way  the  operations  performed  in  the  manufacture  of 
guncotton,  and  consist  essentially  of: 

1.  Nitrating  the  glycerine;  and, 

2.  Purifying  the  product  of  free  acid  and  other  nitro-com- 
pounds. 

In  nitrating,  it  is  not  possible  to  place  a  large  amount  of 
glycerine  in  the  acid,  for  the  reason  that  the  action  would  be 
too  energetic  and  the  temperature  would  rise  too  high.  There- 
fore the  process  is  so  modified  as  to  bring  small  amounts  of 
pure  glycerine  (free  from  lime,  iron,  aluminum,  chlorides,  fatty 
acids,  glucose,  or  other  adulterants  and  having  a  specific  gravity 
of  1.26)  in  succession  into  the  presence  of  the  mixed  acids. 

Sulphuric  acid  is  used  in  the  acid  bath  for  the  same  reason 
as  in  making  nitrocellulose. 

The  acids  must  be  of  the  highest  possible  concentration,  in 
the  proportion  of  1  part  by  weight  of  nitric  acid  (93%  to  95%) 
to  2  parts  by  weight  of  sulphuric  acid  (96%). 

According  to  the  chemical  formula,  227  parts  of  nitroglycerine 
should  be  obtained  from  92  parts  of  glycerine  and  189  parts  of 
nitric  acid;  in  practice  it  is  necessary  to  take  a  much  higher 
proportion  of  acid.  As  a  rule,  1  part  of  glycerine  is  taken  to  8 
parts  of  nitric  acid  and  about  14  parts  of  sulphuric  acid. 

In  order  to  keep  down  the  heat  developed  by  the  reaction, 
the  glycerine  must  be  kept  between  68°  and  77°  F.  This  is  regu- 
lated by  the  amount  of  glycerine  injected  into  the  mixed  acids. 
The  heat  is  caused  by  the  water  combining  with  the  sulphuric 

1  It  is  understood  that  dinitroglycerine  has  been  used  with  very  promising 
results. 


146  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

acid.  A  rise  in  temperature  may  explode  the  nitroglycerine  or 
cause  a  loss  of  product,  converting  it  into  oxalic  acid  and 
other  products;  these  are  difficult  to  remove,  and  make  the 
nitroglycerine  unstable  if  not  removed.  This  excessive  heat- 
ing and  accompanying  N02  fumes  is.  called  " firing."  If  the 
temperature  rises  above  86°  F.  and  cannot  be  controlled  by 
stopping  admission  of  glycerine,  compressed  air  is  forced 
through  pipes  into  the  mixture,  and  the  acid  bath  cooled  by 
the  expansion  of  this  air  and  the  agitation  it  causes.  If  the 
temperature  still  continues  to  rise,  the  whole  charge  is  run 
out  into  safety-tanks.  These  safety- tanks  are  large  leaden 
chambers  or  vats,  situated  at  some  distance  from  the  nitrating 
apparatus,  into  which,  in  case  of  ^firing,  decomposing  mix- 
tures may  be  run  directly  at  any  stage  of  the  manufacture 
and  "  drowned  "  in  a  large  mass  of  cold  water,  which  is  kept 
agitated  and  cooled  by  compressed  air  escaping  through  the 
mixed  liquids. 

It  requires  about  one  hour  to  charge,  nitrate,  and  discharge 
the  contents.  During  the  nitration  copious  fumes  of  N02  are 
given  off  from  the  surface  of  the  acid  mixture.  The  condition 
of  the  charge  and  the  degree  of  reaction  are  judged  by  inspection. 

When  the  nitration  is  completed  the  contents  are  permitted 
to  run  out  into  the  separating  apparatus,  which  consists  of  a 
large  leaden  tank.  The  nitroglycerine,  having  less  specific  grav- 
ity than  the  waste  acids  and  mixed  by-products,  collects  on 
top.  It  is  drawn  off  through  a  stop-cock  into  a  second  tank 
containing  water.  While  the  nitroglycerine  is  being  run  into 
this  latter  tank,  compressed  air  is  forced  from  below  through 
the  water,  keeping  it  agitated.  The  effect  of  this  is  to  "wash  " 
the  nitroglycerine  and  to  keep  the  temperature  between  60° 
and  86°  F.;  which  is  of  first  importance.  Its  specific  gravity 
being  greater  than  water  (1.6),  it  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the 
tank  as  soon  as  the  compressed  air  is  shut  off,  and  is  drawn  off 
from  it  for  further  purification.  A  small  amount  of  nitroglycer- 
ine will  be  left  in  the  wash- water;  this  is  partially  recovered 
by  mixing  with  other  washings  and  subsequent  separations. 

There  remain  also  some  slight  traces  of  free  acid;    these 


DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES.  14? 

are  removed  by  adding  a  small  quantity  of  sodium  carbonate 
in  solution.  The  washing  process  is  then  repeated  in  a  washing- 
tank  of  similar  construction,  agitating  the  liquid  in  a  warm 
dilute  solution  of  sodium  carbonate  by  compressed  air,  repeat- 
ing the  washings  and  renewing  the  solution  until  the  desired 
degree  of  purity  is  attained. 

After  it  is  thoroughly  washed,  it  is  filtered  through  flannel 
or  felt,  stretched  on  suitable  frames,  two  frames  being  used, 
to  remove  all  slimy  and  foreign  particles  which  may  have  gotten 
into  the  liquid  during  the  manufacture.  A  layer  of  dried  salt 
is  placed  on  the  filters,  to  remove  small  quantities  of  water  still 
in  the  liquid  and  to  favor  the  rate  of  filtering. 

The  nitroglycerine  is  allowed  to  stand  in  a  warm  room  for 
several  days,  and  still  a  small  quantity  of  water  will  rise  to  the 
top,  and  may  be  removed  by  skimming  or  absorption. 

The  waste  acids  and  wash-waters  are  subjected  to  special 
treatment  to  recover  the  small  quantities  of  nitroglycerine 
carried  off  in  them,  and  to  place  the  acids  in  such  condition 
that,  after  properly  "fortifying "  them,  they  may  be  used 
again. 

Physical  Properties. — Nitroglycerine,  made  from  chemically 
pure  ingredients  and  at  a  temperature  between  60°  and  80°  F., 
is  a  water-white  oily  liquid,  without  odor  at  ordinary  tempera- 
ture. Commercial  nitroglycerine  has  a  yellow  color,  more  or 
less  deep.  When  free  from  water  it  is  transparent;  the  pres- 
ence of  water  makes  it  milky  and  translucent. 

It  has  a  slightly  sweet  taste,  and  gives  a  burning  sensation. 
It  is  very  poisonous,  and  a  very  small  quantity  absorbed 
through  the  mouth,  nostrils,  or  skin  gives  characteristic  symp- 
toms of  giddiness,  faintness,  and  severe  headache;  if  the  quan- 
tity be  increased,  these  symptoms  become  more  aggravated, 
producing  rigor  and  unconsciousness.  Robust  and  highly  ner- 
vous persons  appear  to  be  specially  susceptible  to  the  effects 
described.  Sometimes  one  never  becomes  immune  to  these 
effects,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  human  system  little  by  little  adjusts 
itself  so  that  workmen  experience  no  unpleasant  effects.  The 


148  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

headache  effect  is  most  often  experienced  by  those  not  accus- 
tomed to  handling  nitroglycerine. 

Nitroglycerine  contracts  about  .08  of  its  volume  in  freez- 
ing, which  it  does  at  3°  to  8°  C.  (37°  to  46°  F.);1  it  does 
not  melt  from  the  frozen  state  until  at  about  11°  C.;  or 
about  51°  F. 

Nitroglycerine  is  soluble  in  alcohol  of  above  90  per  cent 
strength,  ether,  chloroform,  benzene,  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid,  glacial  acetic  acid,  warm  turpentine,  methyl  and  amyl 
alcohols,  carbolic  acid,  nitrobenzene,  toluene,  acetic  ether, 
acetone,  olive-oil,  stearine  oil,  hot  nitric  acid. 

It  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  50  per  cent  alcohol,  carbon 
disulphide,  cold  turpentine,  kerosene,  caustic-soda  solution, 
borax  solution. 

It  is  decomposed  by  cold  hydrochloric  acid,  specific  gravity, 
1.2,  slowly;  hot  ammonium  sulphydrate,  hot  iron  chloride,  1.4 
grams  of  FeCl2  to  10  c.c. 

The  presence  of  nitroglycerine  may  be  detected  by  acting 
on  the  suspected  liquid  with  a  solution  2  of  aniline  in  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid.  This  gives  a  purple  color,  which  turns 
green  on  the  addition  of  water. 

Another  simple  test  is  to  absorb  the  suspected  drop  or 
quantity  with  blotting-paper.  If  it  is  nitroglycerine,  it  will  not 
dry,  and,  when  struck  on  an  anvil  with  a  hammer,  it  will  ex- 
plode. Lighted,  it  burns  with  a  yellowish  flame;  placed  on  a 
hot  metal  plate,  it  explodes. 

In  the  frozen  state,  nitroglycerine  is  less  sensitive  to  shock 
than  in  the  liquid  state;  but  the  process  of  thawing  frozen 
nitroglycerine  is  a  very  dangerous  one,  and  many  accidents 
have  resulted  therefrom.  It  should  never  be  attempted  over 

1  According    to   Walke,   at    3°  to  4°  C.    (37°  to   40°  F.);   according   to 
Bloxam,  at  about  4°  C.  (40°  F.);    according  to  Munroe,  at  39°  to  40°  F.; 
according  to  Guttmann,  freezes  at  8°  C.  and  melts  from  the  frozen  state 
at  11°  C. 

A  small  per  cent  (0.5  to  3.)  of  nitre-benzene  reduces  the  freezing-point 
very  much,  but  diminishes  the  explosive  effect  also. 

2  1  volume  aniline  to  40  volumes  H2SO4,  specific  gravity  1.84. 


DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES.  149 

a  naked  flame,  or  by  direct  contact  with  a  solid  in  contact  with 
a  flame.  The  only  safe  way  is  to  thaw  over  steam-pipes  heated 
not  higher  than  50°  C.  (122°  F.),  or  immersed  in  a  water-tight 
vessel  itself  immersed  in  a  vessel  of  water  heated  not  higher 
than  50°  C.  (122°  F.). 

Nitroglycerine  can  be  completely  evaporated  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  70°  C.  (158°  F.).  It  evaporates  slowly  at  lower 
temperatures;  at  40°  C.  (104°  F.)  10  per  cent  has  evapo- 
rated in  a  few  days.  Washing  for  two  hours  with  water  at 
50°  C.  (122°  F.),  with  agitation  by  compressed  air,  0.15  per  cent 
of  nitroglycerine  is  lost. 

Although  frozen  nitroglycerine  is  very  liable  to  explosion 
if  brought  over  a  naked  flame  or  hot  metal,  liquid  nitroglycerine 
is  insensitive  to  flame.  A  lighted  match  plunged  into  liquid 
nitroglycerine  will  be  extinguished  without  causing  explosion; 
an  incandescent  platinum  wire  will  be  cooled  down,  the  nitro- 
glycerine only  volatilizing. 

If  the  liquid  is  ignited  in  the  open  air,  it  will  burn  quietly 
provided  the  mass  is  small;  if  it  is  large  and  the  tempera- 
ture is  increased  by  a  failure  of  the  heat  of  the  burning 
surface  to  be  conducted  off,  explosion  will  take  place  when 
the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  medium  rises  to  180°  C. 
(356°  F.). 

Formerly,  nitroglycerine  was  thought  to  be  liable  to  undergo 
spontaneous  decomposition,  but,  as  now  manufactured,  such 
danger  is  very  remote.  If  properly  purified,  there  should  be  no 
tendency  to  decompose.  When  decomposition  starts,  it  pro- 
ceeds slowly  and  quietly,  giving  off  N02  and  C02  and  forming 
crystals  of  oxalic  acid;  the  escaping  gases,  some  of  which  are 
held  in  the  liquid,  color  it  green.  As  the  decomposition  pro- 
ceeds, the  entire  mass,  after  some  months,  is  converted  into  a" 
greenish,  gelatinous  substance,  composed  chiefly  of  oxalic  acid, 
ammonia,  and  water.  Decomposing  nitroglycerine  is,  therefore, 
characterized  by  a  greenish  color.  While  in  this  state,  it  is  more 
liable  to  explosion  than  when  normal,  and  every  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  subject  it  to  jar,  blow,  or  shock;  decomposing 


150  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

nitroglycerine  should  be  exposed  to  the  open  air,  so  that  the 
heat  of  chemical  action  may  be  carried  off. 

All  nitroglycerine  should  be  tested  from  time  to  time  for 
free  acid  with  blue  litmus-paper. 

If  heated  above  45°  C.  (113°  F.),  decomposition  will  ensue, 
but  below  this  temperature  it  may  be  kept  in  storage  indefi- 
nitely without  change. 

A  mass  of  nitroglycerine  heated  above  180°  C.  will  explode. 
It  will  explode  by  shock  under  certain  conditions.  If  pinched 
between  two  rigid  surfaces  like  metal  or  rock,  it  explodes;  e.g., 
a  small  piece  of  blotting-paper  saturated  with  a  drop  of  nitro- 
glycerine, struck  by  a  hammer  on  an  anvil,  will  explode  at  the 
point  struck,  but,  as  a  rule,  not  beyond.  A  thin  thread  or 
sheet  of  nitroglycerine  on  a  metal  surface  will  detonate  if  struck 
with  a  piece  of  metal.  A  bullet  fired  into  a  mass  of  nitro- 
glycerine will  detonate  it. 

Shock,  friction,  and  heating  of  all  kinds  must  be  carefully 
guarded  against  in  handling  and  keeping  nitroglycerine. 

Nobel,  in  1863,  discovered  that  the  highest  type  of  explosion 
could  be  initiated  in  nitroglycerine  by  a  small  cap  of  fulminate 
of  mercury.  This  marked  an  epoch  in  explosives,  in  that  it 
for  the  first  time  established  the  fact  that  the  character  of  the 
explosion  is  dependent  upon  the  character  of  the  initial  disturb- 
ance. Nitroglycerine  should,  therefore,  be  fired  by  a  cap  of 
mercury  fulminate  if  its  full  explosive  force  is  to  be  developed, 
and  for  this  purpose  the  cap  should  be  in  direct  contact  with 
the  liquid.  In  the  frozen  state,  it  requires  a  powerful  cap  to 
detonate  it. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  of  cans  or  other  receptacles 
which  have  contained  nitroglycerine.  The  film  of  nitroglycerine 
]"eft  on  the  surface  of  such  empty  receptacles  has  caused  disas- 
trous explosions.  All  such  receptacles  should  be  immersed  in 
an  alkaline  sulphide  solution  before  being  used  for  other  purposes. 

The  explosive  reaction  for  nitroglycerine  may  be  given  as 
follows : 

2C3H503(N02)3  exploded  =  6C02  +5H20  +3N2  +0. 


DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES.  151 

One  kilogram  of  nitroglycerine  should  give  1135  litres  of 
gaseous  products. 

The  temperature  of  explosion  has  been  ascertained  by 
experiment  to  be  about  3000°  C.  The  theoretical  temperature, 
exploded  in  its  own  volume,  is  6980°  C. 

The  energy  represented  by  1  kilogram  is  about  6000  kilo- 
gram-meters. It  is  about  eight  times  more  powerful  than 
gunpowder,  weight  for  weight.  Exploded  in  its  own  volumo, 
it  gives  a  pressure  of  about  164  tons  per  square  inch. 

Nitroglycerine  was  first  used'  by  Nobel  in  1864  for  blasting 
purposes.  It  proved  to  be  a  very  dangerous  explosive,  on 
account  of  its  liquid  state  and  its  "creeping  "  and  " sweating  " 
properties.  Small  masses  could  not  be  distinguished  from 
water,  and  the  detonation  of  a  -drop  might  explode  huge  masses, 
causing  great  destruction  of  life  and  property. 

To  avoid  these  dangers,  Mowbray,  of  North  Adams,  Mass., 
made  use  of  it  in  the  frozen  state  in  the  construction  of  the 
Hoosac  Tunnel.  Not  only  were  the  dangers  due  to  the  liquid 
state  avoided,  but  in  the  frozen  state  it  is  less  sensitive  to 
shock. 

Nobel  next  resorted  to  the  device  of  dissolving  nitroglycerine 
in  wood  alcohol  (15  to  20  per  cent)  for  shipment.  While  in  this 
state  it  is  absolutely  non-explosive,  and  can  be  recovered  in 
its  explosive  form  by  adding  6  to  8  times  its  volume  of  water 
to  the  solution.  While  this  made  shipment  safe,  the  danger  of 
handling  it  in  blasting,  and  for  disruptive  purposes  generally, 
remained,  and  its  use  in  the  liquid  state  was  discontinued  abroad 
some  years  ago,  and  recently  in  America. 

At  present,  nitroglycerine  is  only  used  in  explosives  as  an 
ingredient  of  dynamites  of  various  types  and  of  smokeless 
powders. 

If  at  any  time  it  is  necessary  to  store  liquid  nitroglycerine, 
it  should  be  kept  in  earthen  crocks,  standing  in  copper  vessels, 
and  a  layer  of  water  should  be  kept  on  the  nitroglycerine. 

If  the  liquid  show  a  green  color  at  any  time,  the  mass  should 
be  destroyed  by  explosion  or  by  chemical  action,  any  alkaline 


152  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

sulphide  solution  being  efficient  for  this  purpose.  "Sulphur 
solution/'  made  by  dissolving  flowers  of  sulphur  in  a  solu- 
tion of  sodium  carbonate,  is  the  solution  used,  as  a  rule, 
for  this  purpose.  Whenever  nitroglycerine  is  stored  either  in  the 
liquid  form  or  as  dynamite,  a  sulphide  solution  should  be  kept 
on  hand  to  pour  over  particles  that  may  get  on  shelves  or  floor. 

(c)  Dynamites. 

"Dynamite  "  is  a  term  that  has  both  a  general  and  a  specific 
meaning.  As  a  general  term,  it  includes  all  mixtures  of  nitro- 
glycerine with  solid  substances,  in  which  the  latter  hold  the 
liquid  nitroglycerine  in  absorption.  The  mixing  may  be  done 
directly  or  indirectly  through  the  medium  of  a  solvent.  The 
solid  substance  is  called  the  base  or  dope.  The  base  may  be 
itself  an  explosive,  or  a  combustible  material,  or  entirely  inert 
in  the  chemical  reaction  of  explosion.  In  this  sense,  smoke- 
less powders  that  have  nitroglycerine  as  an  ingredient  par- 
take of  the  nature  of  dynamite,  but  the  name  is  used  with 
reference  to  explosives  designed  for  disruptive  purposes  only. 

Berthelot  divides  dynamites  into  several  classes : 

1.  Those  having  an  inert  base  of  silica,  magnesium  carbonate, 

brick-dust,  tripoli,  sand,  etc.,  having  little  or  no  chemical 
action  in  the  explosion,  and  acting  along  physical  lines  to 
render  the  mixture  safer  by  checking  the  transmission  of 
molecular  shock-waves,  the  harmonious  propagation  of 
which,  through  a  homogeneous  mass,  gives  rise  to  the 
explosive  wave. 

2.  Those  having  an  active  base,  which  may  be 

(a)  An  explosive  compound. 

(6)  A  combustible  base. 

(c)  A  mixed  base,  consisting  of  a  combustible  and  an 

oxygen-carrier. 

The  bases  are  modified  to  suit  the  work  in  hand;  the  nature 
of  the  explosion  may  be  either  shattering  (local)  or  propulsivej 
the  latter  grading  off  into  the  slow-burning  powders. 


DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES.  153 

In  a  more  special  sense,  the  term  refers  to  the  first  practical 
form  of  dynamite,  namely,  that  in  which  liquid  nitroglycerine 
was  mixed  with  the  infusorial  earth  called  kieselguhr  as  the 
absorbent  base. 

The  difficulties  and  dangers  attending  the  use  of  liquid 
nitroglycerine  have  been  referred  to.  In  1866  Mr.  Alfred  Nobel, 
in  attempting  to  avoid  these,  hit  upon  the  means  of  absorbing 
the  liquid  explosive  into  the  mass  of  pulverized  kieselguhr,  an 
earth  found  in  beds  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  consisting 
of  the  silicious  remains  of  infusorial  life.  This  earth  has  marked 
absorptive  properties,  due  to  the  cellular  nature  of  the  particles 
which  constitute  it,  and,  having  absorbed  a  liquid-like  nitro- 
glycerine, it  holds  it  tenaciously.  Nobel,  by  making  use  of  this 
property  of  kieselguhr,  avoided  the  difficulties  and  dargers  of 
transporting,  handling  and  exploding  nitroglyceiine  without 
materially  impairing  its  power,  and  to  this  mixture  he  gave  the 
name  "dynamite."  When  carefully  calcined  the  best  kieselguhr 
will  absorb  over  four  times  its  own  weight  of  nitroglycerine. 
The  amount  of  nitroglycerine  present  in  any  case  is  regu- 
lated by  the  character  of  the  work  to  be  done;  the  highest 
commercial  percentage  is  75  per  cent,  and  this  is  called 
"Dynamite  No.  1."  Dynamite  "No.  2"  has  50  per  cent  of 
nitroglycerine;  "No.  3,"  30  per  cent  of  nitroglycerine.  A  lit  lie 
sodium  carbonate  is  usually  present  to  neutralize  any  free  acids 
that  may  form. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  steps  taken  in  the  manu- 
facture of  dynamite: 

1.  The  kieselguhr  is  calcined  in  a  reverberatory  furnace. 

2.  It  is  ground  between  rollers. 

3.  It  is  passed  through  fine  sieves. 

4.  It  is  dried. 

5.  It  is  packed  in  bags  and  stored  in  a  dry  atmosphere. 

6.  It  is  dried  until  it  does  not  contain  more  than  0.5  per  cent 

of  water. 

7.  Dry  guhr  is  spread  over  the  bottom  of  lead-lined  troughs. 

8.  Nitroglycerine  is  poured  over  it  and  mixed  thoroughly. 


154  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

9.  It  is  rubbed  through  sieves:  1st,  3  meshes  to  the  inch;  21, 
7  meshes  to  the  inch. 

10.  The  bulk  dynamite  is  pressed  into  cylinders  about  1  inch 

diameter  and  8  inches  long.     These  cylinders  are  called 
" sticks  "  or  "cartridges." 

11.  The  cartridges  are  carefully  wrapped  in  paraffined  paper. 

The  sensitiveness  of  dynamite  is  increased  very  much  by 
heat.  According  to  Eissler,  "at  350°  the  fall  of  a  dime  upon 
it  will  explode  it." 

It  ignites  at  180°  C.  (356°  F.) ;  at  this  temperature  it  will 
burn  quietly,  if  free  from  pressure  and  not  affected  by  jar,  vibra- 
tion, or  extraneous  force  of  any  kind,  otherwise  it  explodes. 

If  a  thin  layer  be  spread  over  a  tin  plate  and  the  plate  be 
heated  over  a  burner  the  nitroglycerine  will  evaporate,  but  if 
the  layer  be  more  than  one-quarter  of  an  inch  deep  the  dynamite 
is  liable  to  explode. 

At  a  temperature  less  than  180°  C.  the  sensitiveness  in- 
creases with  the  temperature  and  time  exposed. 

Exposed  to  gentle  heat,  dynamite  undergoes  no  change. 
Heated  at  100°  C.  for  one  hour,  no  change  should  take  place. 
Heated  rapidly  to  220°  C.,  it  ignites  and  burns.  If  ignited  it 
burns  quietly  when  free,  but  if  confined  will  explode.  If  a 
large  mass  of  dynamite  is  ignited,  the  interior  portion  may  be 
heated  high  enough  to  explode,  being  confined  by  the  sur- 
rounding mass. 

If  exposed  to  high  storage  temperature  for  a  considerable 
time  the  nitroglycerine  is  liable  to  "leak."  Dynamite  should 
be  tested  for  "leaking"  at  the  highest  temperature  to  which  it 
is  liable  to  be  exposed  in  storage. 

When  dynamite  is  exposed  to  a  temperature  below  12°  C. 
the  nitroglycerine  has  a  tendency  to  freeze;  and  if  it  be  lowered 
much  below  this,  down,  say,  to  4°  C.,  the  nitroglycerine  freezes, 
and  in  doing  so  separates  from  its  base  to  a  certain  extent  and 
does  not  always  become  absorbed  again  on  melting.  If  solidly 
frozen  it  is  very  insensitive  to  shock.  A  frozen  stick  of  dyna- 
mite may,  however,  be  exploded  by  attempting  to  cut  it  or 


DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES.  155 

chop  it  in  two.  It  is  dangerous  to  ram  a  frozen  cartridge; 
forcing  the  frozen  crystals  over  each  other  is  apt  to  initiate 
an  explosion.  The  violence  of  the  explosion  is  much  reduced  in 
the  frozen  state. 

While  a  stick  of  unfrozen  dynamite  may  be  ignited  without 
danger,  it  is  very  dangerous  to  bring  a  frozen  stick  in  contact 
with  a  naked  flame  or  highly  heated  surface.  It  is  only  safe 
to  thaw  it  in  a  covered  vessel  itself  immersed  in  a  water- 
bath. 

Dynamite  as  a  disruptive  explosive  is  most  efficient  with 
hard,  rigid  material.  With  soft,  yielding  material  it  gives  only 
a  local  effect.  With  such  materials  a  slower  acting  explosive, 
like  black  powder  or  the  modified  dynamites  described  later, 
should  be  used. 

A  dynamite  with  an  inert  base  containing  less  than  30  per 
cent  of  nitroglycerine  will  not  explode.  When  the  proportion  of 
nitroglycerine  is  reduced  below  30  per  cent  it  is  necessary  to  use 
an  active  base,  either  a  mixture  or  compound  (see  Judson  Powder 
and  Blasting  Gelatin) . 

Kieselguhr  dynamite  usually  has  a  light-brown  to  reddish- 
brown  color,  and  looks  like  brown  sugar.  It  should  not  feel 
greasy  to  the  touch,  and  the  wrappers  of  dynamite  sticks  should 
show  no  evidences  of  liquid  nitroglycerine  on  the  inside.  The 
outside  of  the  stick  when  the  wrapper  is  removed  should  be 
smooth,  even,  and  compact;  there  should  be  no  evidences  of  a 
pasty  condition,  or  greenish  spots.  Broken  across,  the  stick 
should  present  an  even,  granular  surface  on  the  cross-section, 
with  no  evidence  of  exuded  globules  of  nitroglycerine. 

The  white  deposit  often  seen  on  the  outside  of  a  stick  of  dyna- 
mite is  not  necessarily  an  indication  of  deterioration. 

Kieselguhr  dynamite  is  used  at  present  chiefly  in  America. 
Dynamite  No.  1  is  used  to  charge  submarine  mines,  and  for 
military  demolitions.  According  to  Munroe,  dynamite  No.  1, 
exploded  in  its  own  volume,  gives  a  pressure  of  125  tons  per 
square  inch. 

For  rock-quarrying,  tunnel-making,  and  blasting  generally 


156  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

there  are  many  varieties  of  dynamites,  particularly  those  having 
active  bases,  either  explosive  or  combustible. 

The  following  are  some  examples  of  American  commercial 
dynamites: 

GIANT  POWDER  (Dynamite  No.  1). 

Nitroglycerine 75  parts 

Kieselguhr 25  " 

Sodium  carbonate 0.5       " 

ATLAS  POWDER  (A). 

Nitroglycerine 75  parts 

Sodium  nitrate 2           " 

Wood-fiber 21           " 

Magnesium  carbonate 2           " 

ATLAS  POWDER  (B).1 

Nitroglycerine 50  " 

Sodium  nitrate 34  " 

Magnesium  carbonate 2  ft 

Wood-fiber 14  " 

SAFETY  NITRO-POWDER. 

Nitroglycerine 68 . 81  parts 

Sodium  nitrate 18 . 35     " 

Wood-pulp 12.84     " 

GIANT  POWDER  (No.  2). 

Nitroglycerine 40  parts 

Sodium  nitrate 40     " 

Sulphur 6     " 

Resin 8     " 

Kieselguhr 8     " 

RENDROCK. 

Nitroglycerine 40  parts 

Potassium  nitrate 40     " 

1  Dr.  Thos.  B.  Stillman  of  the  Department  of  Engineering  Chemistry, 
Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  reports  the  following  analyses  of  Atlas 
Powders,  which  are  being  used  in  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal : 

Atlas  Powder  B+  Atlas  Powder  C+ 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Moisture 0.2          Moisture 1.0 

Nitroglycerine 61.1  Nitroglycerine 45.7 

Wood  pulp 14.1  Wood  pulp  10.5 

Magnesium  monoxide 3.0  Chalk 1.9 

Saltpetre 21.6          Saltpetre 40.9 

100.0  100.0 


DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES.  157 

Wood-pulp 13  parts 

Pitch 7     " 

VULCAN  POWDER. 

Nitroglycerine 30 . 0  parts 

Sodium  nitrate 52.5 

Sulphur 7.0     " 

Charcoal 10.5     " 

JUDSON  POWDER. 

Nitroglycerine 5  parts 

Sodium  nitrate 64     " 

Sulphur 16     " 

Cannel-coal  dust. .  15     " 


There  is  a  dynamite  made  in  England,  in  which  the 
base  is  charcoal  made  from  cork.  This  has  a  remarkable 
absorptive  power,  taking  up  as  much  as  90  per  cent  of 
nitroglycerine,  and  retaining  it  even  if  kept  under  water  for 
a  prolonged  period.  It  is  known  in  the  market  as  "  cork- 
dynamite." 

Like  all  nitro-compounds,  dynamites  are  more  sensitive  to 
shock  at  the  higher  temperatures. 

Direct  rays  of  the  sun  have  the  same  effect  as  with  other 
nitro-compounds,  tending  to  decompose  them. 

Dynamite  made  from  properly  purified  nitroglycerine 
should,  however,  keep  indefinitely  at  ordinary  storage  temper- 
ature. 

Water  in  contact  with  dynamite  displaces  the  nitroglycerine. 
This  principle  is  made  use  of  in  collecting  nitroglycerine  from 
dynamite  for  test.  All  dynamite  which  has  been  exposed  to 
water  is  dangerous. 

Dynamite  requires  a  much  more  violent  shock  than  nitro- 
glycerine to  explode  it.  Iron  on  iron,  or  iron  on  stone,  will  explode 
it,  but  wood  on  wood  will  not.  It  is  more  sensitive  to  shock 
in  proportion  as  the  percentage  of  nitroglycerine  increases. 

A  small-arm  bullet  fired  at  short  range  into  dynamite  will 
explode  it. 


158 


OA^  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


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DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES.  159 

(d)  Explosive  Gelatin. 

In  1875  Nobel  introduced  a  new  type  of  explosive — a  mix- 
ture of  collodion  cotton  and  nitroglycerine — under  the  name 
of  "  blasting  gelatin."  The  chemical  principle  involved  in 
this  explosive  is  that  a  more  complete  combustion  takes 
place  with  the  mixture  than  with  either  ingredient;  the 
excess  of  oxygen  in  the  products  of  explosion  of  nitroglyc- 
erine supplying  the  deficiency  in  the  explosion  of  nitro- 
cellulose, causing  the  C  to  burn  to  C02,  instead  of  partly 
to  CO;  this  additional  chemical  action  greatly  increasing  the 
heat,  hence  the  volume  and  force  of  the  explosion.  The  pro- 
portions vary,  but  may  be  taken  at  about  90  per  cent  of 
nitroglycerine  with  about  10  per  cent  of  nitrocellulose  com- 
pletely soluble  in  ether-alcohol.  According  to  Berthelot  the 
proportions  of  the  mixture  are  93  to  95  parts  of  nitroglycerine, 
7  to  5  parts  of  collodion  cotton.  The  mixing  is  done  in  troughs 
at  a  temperature  of  122°  F.  with  wooden  spades,  and  when  the 
mass  is  so  gelatinized  as  to  make  it  difficult  to  work  with  spades 
it  is  kneaded  by  hand,  like  bread-dough,  until  it  has  a  smooth, 
even  consistency.  It  is  then  removed  and  allowed  to  cool, 
finally  the  mass  becomes  a  rather  firm,  compact,  jelly-like  sub- 
stance, soft  enough  to  be  easily  cut  by  a  knife.  The  finished 
product  is  worked  into  cylindrical  cartridges,  but  this  cannot 
be  done  in  presses  as  with  ordinary  dynamite.  As  a  rule,  the 
gelatinous  mass  is  placed  in  an  inclined  cylinder  in  which  an 
Archimedean  screw  revolves.  The  action  of  the  screw  is  to  force 
the  gelatin  to  the  upper  end  of  the  cylinder  and  out  through 
a  circular  orifice  in  that  end,  forming  a  continuous  "cable" 
or  "rope"  of  the  explosive.  This  cable  is  cut  by  a  bronze 
knife  into  the  lengths  desired.  These  cartridges  are  wrapped 
with  paraffined  paper,  the  same  as  ordinary  dynamite- cartridges. 

This  substance  is  the  most  powerful  explosive  known,  having, 
according  to  Abbot's  experiments,  17  per  cent  greater  intensity 
of  action  than  Dynamite  No.  1.  According  to  Berthelot,  by 
theory,  it  should  have  30  per  cent  more  power. 


160  NO  TES  ON  MI  LI  TARY  £XPL  OSI VES. 

Explosive  gelatin  is  a  yellow  or  light  brown,  gelatinous, 
elastic  mixture,  more  stable  than  ordinary  dynamite.  It  differs 
from  ordinary  dynamite,  also,  in  that  ordinary  pressure  does 
not  cause  the  nitroglycerine  to  exude,  and  it  is  not  affected  by 
the  action  of  water,  except  at  the  surface.  One  gram  of  mer- 
cury fulminate  is  required  to  detonate  uncamphorated  explosive 
gelatin.  By  adding  to  the  mixture  a  small  quantity  of  benzene, 
or,  better,  camphor  (1  to  4  per  cent),  it  is  rendered  insensitive 
to  ordinary  shock  and  friction,  but  at  the  same  time  it  requires 
a  more  powerful  primer  to  detonate  it;  the  addition  of  camphor 
also  raises  the  temperature  of  explosion  to  above  300°  C.;  if 
mixed  with  10  per  cent  of  camphor  it  fuses  without  explosion. 
The  special  primer  required  to  detonate  camphorated  blasting 
gelatin  consists  of  60  parts  of  nitroglycerine  and  40  parts 
nitrohydrocellulose.  The  initial  shock  required  to  detonate 
blasting  gelatin  is  six  times  greater  than  that  required  to  deton- 
ate ordinary  dynamite.  Owing  to  these  causes  blasting  gelatin 
is  far  less  sensitive  to  explosion  by  influence;  the  sensitiveness 
of  blasting  gelatin  varies  in  a  general  way  inversely  as  the 
quantity  of  nitrocellulose  used  in  the  mixture. 

A  cartridge  of  blasting  gelatin  placed  in  water  will  turn 
white  on  its  surface,  owing  to  the  fact  that  nitroglycerine  in  the 
outer  layer  is  displaced.  The  nitrocellulose  remaining  forms 
a  protective  coating  to  the  rest  of  the  mass. 

At  ordinary  temperature  it  is  much  less  sensitive  than 
ordinary  dynamite;  in  the  frozen  state  it  is  very  sensitive  to 
shock,  and,  in  this  respect,  the  opposite  of  ordinary  dynamite. 

It  burns  in  the  open  air  without  exploding,  when  small 
quantities  are  used. 

It  is  very  stable  under  the  action  of  heat,  keeping  for  days 
unchanged  at  70°  C.,  but  its  sensitiveness  is  increased  by  heat. 
Slowly  heated  to  204°  C.  it  explodes. 

The  potassiurn-iodide-starch  stability  test  is  for  10  minutes, 
but  it  will  often  stand  the  heat  of  the  test  for  from  40  to  60 
minutes. 

The  action  of  blasting  gelatin  is  too  violent  for  many  pur- 
poses, and  modifications  of  it  have  been  introduced.  The 


DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES.  161 

explosive  gelatin,  as  made  above,  or  a  little  thinner  (using  less 
nitrocellulose),  is  mixed  with  other  substances,  with  a  view  to 
deaden  the  violence  or  prolong  the  duration  of  the  explosive 
force,  in  the  same  manner  as  is  done  in  ordinary  dynamites. 
A  large  variety  of  these  mixtures  have  been  suggested;  one  of 
them  is  known  as  Gelatin  Dynamite,  and  has  the  following 
composition : 

Explosive  gelatin 65  per  cent 

Base 35   "     " 

The  explosive  gelatin  has  only  3  per  cent  of  nitrocellulose. 

The  base  is  a  powder  made  up  of  75  parts  of  sodium  nitrate, 
24  parts  of  wood-pulp,  and  1  part  of  sodium  carbonate. 

Analogous  to  these  is  a  class  of  explosives,  in  which  nitro- 
cellulose is  mixed  with  oxidizers  like  the  metallic  nitrates,  and 
the  mass  held  together  by  some  cementing  matrix,  such  as 
paraffin,  gums,  resins,  etc.1  There  is  a  great  variety  of  this 
class  of  explosives;  they  are  of  interest  only  historically,  and 
in  the  sense  only  that  it  was  through  them  that  the  present 
composite  smokeless  powders  were  evolved.  Originally  they  were 
used  largely  for  blasting  purposes. 

(e)  Picric-acid  Derivatives. 

Picric  Acid  and  the  Picrates  have  been  considered  (see 
pp.  76  and  79).  Recently  certain  derivatives  of  these  com- 
pounds have  come  into  use  as  charges  for  shells.  The  com- 
positions of  these  explosives  are  kept  secret  and  cannot  be 
given.  They  were  first  exploited  in  1869  by  Brugere  and 
Designolles  in  France,  and  Abel  in  England.  The  powders 
proposed  by  these  consisted  of  a  mixture  of  ammonium  picrate 
and  saltpetre. 

Melinite,  used  by  the  French  as  a  shell-filler,  is  essentially 
picric  acid  alone  or  with  other  substances.  Originally  it  was  a 
mixture  of  picric  acid  and  colloided  nitrocellulose,  later  only 
fused  picric  acid  was  used,  and  Cundill  says  "there  is  some 

1  An  excellent  scheme  for  the  chemical  analysis  of  this  class  of  explosives, 
suggested  by  Thos.  B.  Stillinan,  Ph.D.,  and  Peter  T.  Austen,  Ph.D.,  will  be 
found  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  Chimique  de  Paris,  April  20,  1906,  and  an 
English  translation  thereof  in  The  Chemical  Engineer  for  July,  1906. 


162  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

reason  to  believe  that  nitrobenzol  or  a  similar  material  is 
employed  as  well." 

Lyddite  is  the  English  equivalent  of  melinite. 

The  later  forms  of  these  shell-filler  explosives,  such  as  were 
used  by  the  Japanese  and  Russians  in  the  recent  war,  are  thought 
to  be  either  pure  picric  acid  or  a  mixture  of  it  with  a  nitro-com- 
pound,  of  the  aromatic  series,  as  suggested  by  Cundill. 

Much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  use  of  high  explosives 
in  shell  by  the  U.  S.  Army  Ordnance  Board,  with  results  superior, 
it  is  thought,  to  those  attained  elsewhere. 

The  most  successful  explosive  of  this  type  in  the  United 
States  is  Explosive  D. 

Explosive  D  is  not  fusible;  it  is  used  as  a  shell-filler  by 
compression;  this  is  considered  a  disadvantage,  both  because 
the  density  of  charging  is  less  and  because  application  of 
pressure  of  such  magnitude  as  is  necessary  to  properly  charge 
shell  introduces  a  source  of  danger.  Explosive  D  is,  however^ 
the  least  sensitive  to  shock  of  all  the  explosives  named,  and 
this  is  a  very  great  advantage. 

A  high  explosive  for  charging  shell  must  fulfil  many  con- 
ditions, some  almost  contradictory,  in  order  to  be  thoroughly 
serviceable. 

The  Ordnance  Board,  U.  S.  Army,  enumerates  the  following 
requirements  for  high  explosives  for  shell : 

I.  INFORMATION  TO  BE  FURNISHED  BY  THE  INVENTOR. 

1.  Form  of  material  (mealed,  crystalline,  plastic,  or  molded). 

2.  Chemical  composition. 

3.  Facility  of   manufacture  and    time  required  for  manu- 
facture. 

4.  Relative  strength  or  force  as  compared  with  black  rifle 
powder  or  picric  acid.     If  estimated,  explain  method;  if  deter- 
mined by  experiment,  state  how. 

5.  Commercial  purposes  for  which  the  material  is  or  may 
be  used. 


DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES.  163 

6.  Results  of  tests,  if  any,  that  have  been  made  to  show: 
(a)  Safety  in  handling. 

(6)  Sensitiveness  to  friction  and  shock. 

(c)  Means  required  to  produce  good  detonation. 

(d)  Keeping  qualities  under  exposure  to  moisture,  heat, 

cold,  and  continued  storage. 

7.  Actual  firing  tests  from  guns,  if  any. 

8.  Proposed  method  of  loading  in  shell. 


II.    LABORATORY  EXAMINATION. 

1.  Complete  quantitative  chemical  analysis  and  determine 
calculated  force  and  temperature  of  explosion. 

2.  Test   in   Trauzel   lead  blocks  to  determine  strength  in 
comparison  with  that  of  known  explosives. 

3.  Tests  with  standard  impact  testing  machine  to  determine 
sensitiveness  to  blow  in  comparison  with  that  of  known  ex- 
plosives. 

4.  Determine  relative  ease  of  detonation  by  exploding  lead 
or  tin  tubes,  using  mercuric  fulminate  detonators  of  varying 
strengths. 

5.  Determine  the  solubility  of  the  explosives  or  any  of  its 
components  in  water  and  the  effect  of  water  on  the  ease  of 
detonation. 

6.  Note  hygroscopic  qualities. 

7.  Determine  chemical  action  t  on  metals,   especially  iron, 
and  determine  sensitiveness  of  salts  formed,  if  any. 

8.  Determine  probable  ease  of  loading  into  projectiles  as 
compared  with  that  of  known'explosives. 

9.  Determine  maximum  practicable  gravimetric  density  when 
loaded  into  projectiles. 

10.  Determine  "  residue  from  flash  "  and  "  mineral  ash  " 
as  approximate  measures  of  the  production  of  smoke. 

11.  Determine  the  stability  by  noting  rate  of  decomposition 
at  65.5°  C,  of  dry  and  wet  samples  of  the  explosive. 


164  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

12.  Determine  the  temperature  of  ignition  and  the  character 
of  burning  in  open  air. 

13.  Determine  the  melting  point,  if  any,  or  if  the  explosive 
is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  chemical  compounds,  some  of  which 
have  melting  points,  determine  them. 

III.    GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS 

A  satisfactory  high  explosive  for  shell  should  fulfil  the  fel- 
lowing  requirements: 

Safety  and  Insensitiveness. 

1.  Should  be  reasonably  safe  in  the  manufacture  and  free 
from  very  injurious  effects  on  the  operatives. 

2.  Must  show  a  safe  degree  of  insensitiveness  in  the  impact 
machine. 

3.  Must  withstand  the  maximum  shock  of  discharge  under 
repeated  firings  in  the  shell  for  which  it  is  intended. 

4.  Must  withstand  the  shock   of  impact  without  explosion 
when  fired  in  unfused  shells  against  the  strongest  target  that 
the  shell  alone  will  perforate  without  breaking  up  as  follows : 

(a)  Field  Shell  —With  maximum  velocity,  against  3  feet  of 
oak  timber  backed  by  sand.  With  remaining  velocity, 
that  of  full-service  charge  at  1000  yards,  against 
seasoned  brick  wall. 

(6)  Siege  Shell— With  remaining  velocity,  that  of  full- 
service  charge  at  500  yards,  against  seasoned  concrete 
thicker  than  shell  will  perforate. 

(e)  Armor-piercing  Shell — Against  a  7-inch  tempered  steel 
plate  in  the  case  of  a  12-inch  A.P.  shell,  with  strik- 
ing velocity  just  sufficient  to  perforate  the  plate. 
As  a  preliminary  test  the  explosive  is  fired  as  a  charge 
of  a  6-pounder  shell  against  steel  plates  of  varying  thickness 
to  determine  the  limit  of  sensitiveness  of  the  explosive.    The 
limit  of  perforation   for  a  6-pounder  shell  is,  approximately, 
a  3-inch  steel  plate. 


DETONATING  EXPLOSIVES.  l6<J 

Detonation  and  Strength. 

1.  Must  be  uniformly  and  completely  detonated  with  the 
service-detonating  fuse. 

2.  Should   possess   the  greatest  strength   compatible  with 

other  necessary  requirements. 

*• 

Stability. 

1.  Must  not  decompose  when  a  dry  or  wet  sample  is  her- 
metically sealed  and  subjected  to  a  temperature  of  65.5°  C. 
for  one  week. 

2.  Should   be   preferably   non-hygroscopic,    and   must   not 
have  its  facility  for  detonation  affected  by  moisture  that  can 
be  absorbed  under  ordinary  atmospheric  conditions  of  storage 
and  handling. 

3.  Must  not  attack  ordinary  metals  used  in  projectiles  and 
fuses,  especially  iron,  to  an  extent  that  cannot  be  prevented 
by  simple  means,  or,  if  the  explosive  forms  iron  salts,  they  should 
be  relatively  insensitive. 

4.  Must  not  deteriorate  or  undergo  chemical  change  in  storage. 

Charging  Shell. 

1.  Safety. — Charging  must  not  be  attended  with  unusual  dan- 
ger, and  should  not  require  exceptional  skill  or  tedious  methods. 

2.  Efficiency. — It  is  very  desirable  that  shell  may  be  charged 
by  pouring  in  the  explosive  in  fused  state,  or  by  inserting  the 
charge  in  the  form  of  densely  compressed  blocks. 

Supply. 

It  should  be  possible  to  obtain  large  quantities  of  it  quickly 
and  at  reasonable  cost. 

The  following  table  gives  ^the  data  of  tests  made  with  the 
explosives  that  were  favorably  considered  by  the  Army  Ordnance 
Board: 


i66 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


Nature  of  Property. 

Rend- 
rock, 
No.  400 

Picric 
Acid. 

Maximite, 
2J  per 
cent. 

Explosive 
D. 

Gun- 
cotton 
Pellets. 

Relative  force  for  actual  dens- 
ity of  loading  in  shell  re- 
ferred    to     guncotton     as 
unity 

2  12 

2  87 

1    91 

1  81 

1  00 

SpecjJ&c  gravity 

3  62 

1  70 

1  55 

1  64 

1  40 

Density  of  loading  in  shell  .  .  . 
Charge  in  pounds  contained  in 
100  cubic  inches  
Cost    of    same    charge    (esti- 
mated)   

2.54 
9.00 

$3  60 

1.66 

5.84 
$2.04 

1.58 
5.67 

$2  83 

1.31 
4.75 

$1  80 

0.73 
2.60 

$1  69 

Method  of  charging  

Melted 

Melted 

Melted 

Bulk  com- 

Pellets 

Requirements. 
1.  Safety  in  manufacture.  .  .  . 
2    Impact  test 

Yes 
Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 
Yes 

pression 

Yes 

Yes 

wax 
iiatrix 

Yes 
Yes 

3.  Shock  of  discharge  in  gun 
4.  Shock  of  impact   (a),   (6), 
(c)  l.  . 

Tested 
(a)  " 

Tested 
(a)    " 

Tested 
(6)    " 

Tested 
(b)    " 

Tested 
(b)  " 

5.  Facility  of  detonation.  .  .  . 
6.  Relative  strength  in  shell. 

7    Stability  (heat)  test 

(6)  » 

Yes 
2.12 
Yes 

(6)    " 

(C)V" 
Yes 

2.87 
Yes 

(c)     " 

Yes 
1.91 
Yes 

(c)     " 
Yes 
Tested 
1.81 
Yes 

(c)   " 
Yes 
Yes 
1.00 
Yes 

8    Non-hygroscopic  

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

15% 

9.  Non-action  on  metals.  ..  .  . 
10    Storage  stability 

Yes 
Tested 

Metal? 
must  be 
protected 

Not 

Metals 
must  be 
protected 
Not 

Yes 

Tested 

H20 
Yes 

Tested 

tested 

tested 

See  page  164,  Safety  and  Insensitiveness. 


VI. 

EXPLODERS. 

As  a  rule  the  active  ingredients  of  all  exploders  is  fulminate 
of  mercury.1  The  explosive  used  may  require  some  adjustment 
of  the  quantity  of  fulminate  in  order  to  obtain  an  explosion  of 
the  proper  order,  or  it  may  require  some  other  ingredient  to  be 
nrxed  with  the  fulminate  of  mercury,  such  as  chlorate  or  nitrate 
of  potassium,  sulphide  of  antimony,  etc.,  but,  as  a  rule,  fulmi- 
nate of  mercury  is  present. 

The  ingredients  of  cap  and  primer  composition  vary  with 
the  kind  of  explosive  that  is  to  be  exploded.  Dynamite,  gun- 
cotton,  picric  acid,  and  progressive  explosives  each  require  a 
different  cap  or  primer  composition.  Especially  is  the  nature 
of  the  initial  blow  important  in  progressive  explosives.  If  the 
primer's  flame  be  lacking  in  kind  or  amount  some  of  the  powder 
may  not  be  burned  in  the  gun;  if  it  be  excessive,  it  will  be 
burned  too  soon  and  give  too  great  pressures.  Much  attention 
has  been  given  to  this  question.  Experiments  have  been  con- 
ducted to  determine  the  primers  best  adapted  to  different 
explosives — to  ascertain  for  each  explosive  the  proper  energy, 
heating  effect,  shape,  size,  and  duration  of  the  flame  of  the  cap 
composition.  Photography  has  been  introduced,  and  it  has 
been  found  that  the  photographs  of  cap  and  primer  flames  are 
characteristic  in  each  case. 

1  Fulminate  of  mercury  was  discarded  in  1899  from  small-arm  percussion 
composition  in  the  United  States  Army  service,  owing  to  the  danger  of 
handling  nnd  to  the  fact  that  the  vapor  of  mercury  liberated  when  the  ful- 
minate primer  is  exploded  attacks,  the  metal  of  the  cartridge  case,  rendering 
it  brittle,  and  thus  making  it  impracticable  to  use  the  case  in  reloading. 
A  chlorate  mixture  has  been  substituted  therefor,  having  the  following  com- 
position : 

Chlorate  of  potassium 47 . 2 

Sulphide  of  antimony 30 . 8 

Sulphur 22. Q 

100.0 

167 


i68  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

There  are  fulminates  of  silver  and  gold,  but  they  are  too  sen- 
sitive to  have  any  uses  in  military  explosives. 

Mercury  fulminate  is  formed  by  treating  metallic  mercury 
with  nitric  acid  and  alcohol. 

The  chemical  reactions  which  take  place  are  not  fully  agreed 
on  among  chemists.  Bloxam  gives  the  following  explanation: 

When  nitric  acid  acts  on  alcohol  several  products  are 
obtained,  among  which  are  nitrous  acid  and  some  hydro- 
cyanic acid  (HCN).  The  formation  of  the  CN  group  in 
this  reaction  may  be  explained  by  the  tendency  of  nit- 
rous acid  to  substitute  N  for  H3  in  organic  compounds, 
and  it  might  be  expected  that  the  action  of  nitrous  acid 
on  alcohol  would  be 

CH3.CH2.HO  +2HN02  =  CN.CN.(HO)2  -f  3H20. 

The  group  CN.CN.(HO)2  is  too  unstable  to  exist  separately. 
This  is  the  hypothetical  fulminic  acid.  If  it  be  assumed  to 
exist  in  the  course  of  the  reaction,  its  production  in  the  presence 
of  mercury  would,  under  the  usual  laws  governing  chemical 
changes,  exchange  its  hydrogen  for  mercury,  in  accordance 
with  the  following  reaction : 

CN.CN.HO.HO  +Hg  =CN.CN.O.HgO  +H2. 

The  structural  formula  (following  Bloxam)  may  be  repre- 
sented as  follows: 

H— 0— C=N 

I      I 
H— 0— C=N 

According  to  Guttmann,  Kekule  demonstrated,  with  a  fair 
amount  of  accuracy,  that  fulminate  of  mercury  should  have  the 
following  rational  formula:  C(N02)(CN)Hg.  He  bases  his  con- 
clusions on  the  reactions  of  fulminate  of  mercury  with  chlorine, 
bromine,  and  hydrogen  sulphide.  This  would  suggest  the 


EXPLODERS.  169 

following  structural  formulas  for  fulminic  acid  and  mercury 
fulminate  : 

H 

I  /O 

Fulminic  acid:      N—  C^C—  N<    |  (for  N'") 
I  X0 

H 

7° 
Mercury  fulminate  :      Hg  =  N—  C  =  C—  N<( 

X) 

The  assumption  of  a  fulminic  acid  is  supported  by  the  actual 
existence  of  a  mono-  and  tri-hydroxide  of  CN.  The  mono, 
CNHO,  cyanic  acid,  a  colorless  liquid,  specific  gravity  1.4,  and 
(CN)3(HO)3,  cyanuric  acid,  a  crystalline  solid,  a  tribasic  acid, 
forming  salts  with  metals,  corresponding  respectively  to  the 
structural  formulas 

H—  0—  C^N 


It  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  an  intermediate  hydroxide 
exists  having  two  HO  groups.  Moreover,  while  the  acid  has  not 
been  separately  produced  salts,  double,  acid,  and  normal, 
corresponding  to  a  bibasic  acid  have  been  produced,  some  of 
which  are  the  following  : 


Mercury  f  ulnu'nate  :      Hg<^ 

X)—  C= 


Silver  fulminate : 

:— 0— C=N 


Ag— O— C=N 
Ag 


170  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Silver-ammonium  fulminate :      NKi — 0 — C  =  N 

I 
Ag-0— C=N 

Silver-potassium  fulminate :     K — 0 — C  =  N 

Ag— 0— C=N 

The  manufacture  of  fulminate  of  mercury  is  conducted  as 
follows : 

Mercury  and  nitric  acid  (specific  gravity  1.38)  are  mixed 
in  a  glass  carboy  in  equal  parts  by  weight.  The  mercury  dis- 
solves in  the  nitric  acid  and,  when  completely  dissolved,  the 
contents  are  allowed  to  cool;  it  is  well  shaken  to  secure 
uniformity  of  product,  and  then  this  solution  is  emptied  into  a 
second  carboy  which  contains  10  parts  of  ethyl  alcohol. 

The  second  carboy  is  kept  at  a  temperature  above  60°  F., 
and  is  connected  with  a  series  of  receivers  which  stand  in  a 
trough  through  which  water  circulates.  The  pipe  from  the  last 
receiver  leads  into  a  condensing  chimney  or  tower. 

After  a  few  minutes  the  reaction  begins  in  the  second  carboy, 
the  liquid  boils,  and  white  vapors  of  nitric  and  acetic  ether, 
aldehyde,  carbonic  acid,  hydrocyanic  acid,  and  some  volatile 
compounds  of  mercury  rise  and  pass  off  through  the  series  of 
conducting  pipes  and  receivers  to  the  condensing  tower.  As 
the  action  proceeds  the  color  of  the  vapors  change  from  white 
to  the  red  fumes  of  nitric  peroxide. 

In  about  fifteen  minutes  the  crystals  of  fulminate  of  mer- 
cury separate  from  the  solution  in  the  second  carboy  in  the 
form  of  small  gray-colored  needles.  As  soon  as  the  reaction  is 
completed  the  contents  are  allowed  to  cool,  and  are  then 
poured  out  on  a  cloth  filter  stretched  on  a  wooden  form.  These 
contents  are  then  washed  with  pure  water,  until  the  washings 
show  no  trace  of  acid  when  tested  with  blue  litmus.  The  filter 
is  then  placed  in  a  drying  atmosphere,  out  of  the  direct  rays  of 
the  sun,  and  allowed  to  dry  until  the  mass  of  fulminate 
contains  only  10  to  15  per  cent  of  water.  The  yield  is 


EXPLODERS.  171 

about  125  parts  of  fulminate  of  mercury  to  100  parts  of  mer- 
cury. Theoretically  there  should  be  a  yield  of  142  parts  per 
100  parts  of  mercury.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  that  no 
particles  of  fulminate  are  scattered  about;  any  suspicious  par- 
ticles should  be  treated  with  sodium-sulphide  solution. 

The  principal  product  is  usually  made  up  in  packages 
containing  120  grains.  It  is  put  up  with  about  15  per  cent 
of  water  and  hermetically  sealed,  to  prevent  evaporation,  as 
it  is  much  more  sensitive  to  shock  and  friction  in  the  dry 
state. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  dry  it  for  use  in  caps  and  detonators 
great  care  must  be  exercised.  The  temperature  must  be  kept 
below  104°  F.,  and  the  dry  fulminate  handled  with  the  greatest 
care. 

Pure  crystals  of  fulminate  of  mercury  have  a  yellowish- 
white  shade.  The  gray  color  of  the  commercial  fulminate  is 
due  to  small  particles  of  unconverted  mercury.  The  pure  ful- 
minate is  obtained  by  boiling  in  a  large  volume  of  distilled 
water,  drawing  off  the  hot  liquid  from  which  the  pure  fulminate 
crystallizes  on  cooling  in  the  form  of  a  yellowish-white,  silky 
mass.  This,  examined  under  the  microscope,  appears  as  groups 
of  crystals.  The  fine  crystals  are  more  desirable  for  use  in 
detonators  than  the  coarser  ones.  Mercury  fulminate  should 
not  be  kept  in  a  stoppered  bottle,  especially  not  one  having  a 
glass  stopper,  as  the  friction  of  removing  and  inserting  the 
stopper  might  detonate  a  particle  of  fulminate  caught  in  the 
neck  of  the  bottle  and  transmit  the  explosion  to  the  whole  mass. 
A  moderate  blow  of  a  hammer  causes  it  to  explode  with  a  bright 
flash  and  gray  fumes  of  mercury.  It  is  detonated  if  touched 
with  a  wire  heated  to  195°  C.  or  by  an  electric  spark,  by  con- 
tact with  strong  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid,  or  sparks  from  metals 
or  flint.  Its  specific  gravity  is  4.42.  The  volume  of  the  gases 
evolved  is  1340  times  the  volume  of  the  solid  fulminate  at 
ordinary  temperatures  and  pressures;  this  would  be  greatly 
increased  by  the  temperature  of  the  explosion.  The  explosive 
nature  of  the  fulminate  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  molecule 


172  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

\ 

Contains  an  oxidizing  group   (Hg02)   and   a  cyanogen  (com- 
bustible) group  (CN)2. 

Heated  slowly  it  explodes  at  305°  F.  (152°  C.);  heated 
rapidly  it  explodes  at  368°  F.  (187°  C.). 

The  nature  of  the  surfaces  between  which  -the  f ulmi  nate  is 
confined  when  struck  has  an  effect  on  its  explosion;  between 
hard  rigid  surfaces,  like  iron  or  steel,  the  explosion  is  certain; 
between  soft  metal  surfaces,  like  lead,  not  so  certain;  between 
wooden  surfaces,  doubtful. 

The  slower  the  crystallization  the  larger  the  crystals,  and 
the  larger  the  crystals  the  more  sensitive  is  the  product. 

When  moistened  with  5  to  30  per  cent  of  water  the  sensi- 
tiveness is  greatly  reduced;  if  struck  in  this  state  by  a  hammer 
on  iron,  only  that  portion  directly  between  the  surfaces  will 
explode.  The  explosion  of  a  quantity  of  dry  fulminate  in 
contact  with  wet  fulminate  will  explode  the  latter,  even  if 
immersed  in  water. 

Fulminate  may  be  subjected  to  high  pressure  without  explo- 
sion, if  pure;  if  sand  or  grit  be  present,  the  slightest  pressure 
may  explode  it. 

Fulminate  of  mercury  is  used  very  little,  except  in  caps 
and  primers.  It  often  has  mixed  with  it  other  substances,  such 
as  potassium  chlorate,  sulphide  of  antimony,  powdered  glass, 
etc.,  to  modify  the  nature  of  the  explosive  blow,  producing  a 
prolonged  action  and  a  penetrating  heat  which  enters  deep  into 
the  mass  of  the  explosive.  The  addition  of  oxidizing  substances, 
like  potassium  chlorate,  serves  to  increase  the  heat,  both  because 
the  latter  is  an  endothermic  substance  and  because  the  oxygen 
it  supplies  serves  to  burn  the  CO  of  the  products  of  combustion 
of  mercury  fulminate  to  C02,  and  thus  still  further  increases  the 
heat.  Powdered  glass  is  often  added  to  increase  the  sensitive- 
ness to  percussion.  Sulphide  of  antimony  also  increases  sensi- 
tiveness, and  it  combines  with  potassium  chlorate,  producing 
heat  and  prolonging  the  action  of  the  fulminating  mixture. 

The  heat  of  formation  for  one  equivalent,  that  is,  a  weight 
proportional  to  the  weight  of  a  molecule  of  mercury  fulminate, 


EXPLODERS.  173 

(284  grams,  the  molugram)  is  -62,900  cals.     Its  heat  of  com- 
bustion in  an  inert  atmosphere  is   +116,000  cals.  for  constant 
volume  and  114,500  cals.  for  constant  pressure.    This  would 
raise  the  products  of  explosion  to  4200°  C. 
The  explosive  reaction  is 

Hg02(CN)2  (exploded)  =  Hg+2CO+N2. 

» 

One  gram  of  it  should  yield  235.8  cubic  centimetres  of  gas 
at  0°  C.  and  barometer  of  76  centimetres.  One  molugram  (284 
grams)  should  yield  66.7  litres  of  gas. 

It  is  to  be  noted,  particularly,  that  the  products  of  explo- 
sion are  simple  gases,  except  CO,  and  therefore  dissociation 
does  not  take  place  in  a  marked  degree. 

The  effect  of  mixing  mercury  fulminate  with  an  oxidizer, 
as  is  done  in  some  cap  compositions,  is  noted  in  the  following 
reaction : 

3Hg02(CN)2  +2KC103  (exploded)  =  3Hg +6C02  +2KC1 +3N2. 

The  heat  evolved  is  +258,000  cals.  for  one  molugram,  almost 
twice  that  for  pure  fulminate,  but  the  initial  blow  is  greatly 
prolonged,  due  to  dissociation  and  recombination  of  C02  and 
KC1. 

With  nitre  the  explosive  reaction  is  as  follows : 

5Hg02(CN)2  +4KN03  =  5Hg  +8C02  +7N2  +2K2C03, 

corresponding  to  +227,400  cals. 

Exploding  in  its  own  volume  mercury  fulminate  gives  a 
pressure  of  28,750  kgm.,  as  compared  with  12,376  kgm.  for 
nitroglycerine  and  9825  kgm.  for  guncotton. 

The  great  value  of  mercury  fulminate  as  an  exploder  is  due 
to  this  enormous  pressure,  and  to  the  fact  of  its  suddenness, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  dissociation;  the  pressure  is,  therefore, 
nearly  that  due  to  explosion  in  the  volume  of  the  original  solid, 
which,  relatively,  is  very  small  on  account  of  the  high  specific 
gravity  of  mercury  fulminate  (4.42).  The  crushing  effect  on 


174  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

the  molecules  of  an  explosive  in  contact  with  mercury  fulminate 
is  overpowering,  and  accomplishes  the  disruption  of  the  bonds 
holding  the  atoms  in  the  molecules;  the  atoms,  once  thus 
released,  enter  into  new  combinations,  according  to  their 
affinities  under  the  new  conditions. 

Caps  and  primers  for  progressive  explosives  require  a  more 
prolonged  blow  than  that  given  by  pure  fulminate.  It  is,  there- 
fore, the  usual  practice  to  mix  nitre  or  potassium  chlorate  for 
this  purpose.  Munroe  gives  the  following  directions  for  making 
composition  for  percussion  caps : 

100  parts  of  dry  fulminate  are  rubbed  to  a  powder  with 
30  parts  of  distilled  water,  50  to  60  parts  of  potassium  nitrate, 
and  29  parts  of  sulphur. 

The  rubbing  is  done  on  a  marble  slab,  using  a  wooden 
spatula. 

This  mixture  is  dried  sufficiently  to  admit  its  granulation. 

It  is  then  forced  by  pressure  into  copper  caps  and  covered 
with  a  layer  of  varnish  or  of  tinfoil,  to  protect  it  from  damp- 
ness. The  varnish  used  may  be  a  solution  of  gum  mastic  in 
turpentine. 

The  caps  are  finally  dried  by  a  gentle  heat  and  packed  in 
boxes. 

Primers  for  detonating  explosives,  for  purposes  of  demoli- 
tion or  destruction,  are  made  of  pure  fulminate  of  mercury. 
Such  primers,  as  a  rule,  are  electric,  although  there  is  one  type 
made  for  use  with  time-fuses. 

The  United  States  Navy  electric  primer,  according  to 
Munroe,  consists  of  a  copper  case  made  in  two  parts.  The 
lower  part  is  a  No.  36  metallic  cartridge-case.  The  upper  part 
is  a  copper  tube,  open  at  both  ends,  which  has  been  cut  from 
a  No.  38  metallic  cartridge-case.  A  thread  is  pressed  on  each  of 
these  parts,  so  that  the  upper  part  or  cap  screws  nicely  on  the 
lower  part.  The  lower  part  is  rilled  with  fulminate  of  mercury 
up  to  the  lowest  thread  of  the  screw.  The  top  part  is  filled 
with  a  cement  plug  made  of  sulphur  and  glass,  through  which 
the  lead-wires  or  primer  legs  pass  to  connect  the  bridge  with 


EXPLODERS.  175 

the  wires  leading  to  the  battery.  When  the  fulminate  is  dry 
the  spaces  in  the  lower  case  and  the  cap  are  filled  with  pul- 
verulent dry  guncotton,  and  then  the  parts  are  screwed  together. 
The  lead-wires  should  be  long  enough  to  protect  the  ends  of  the 
main  conductor  wires  from  destruction  by  the  explosion,  say  6 
to  10  feet  in  length. 

The  bridge  is  practically  the  same  for  all  primers.  It  consists 
of  a  piece  of  platinum-iridium  alloy,  about  one-quarter  inch 
long  and  .001  to  .003  inch  in  diameter.  Its  resistance  should 
be  (bridge  and  short  leads),  cold,  0.3  to  1  ohm;  hot,  0.45  to 
2  ohms;  insulation  resistance  between  conductor  and  case,  1 
megohm;  strength  of  current  to  fire,  0.3  to  0.8  ampere.  Usu- 
ally a  small  wisp  of  dry  guncotton  is  placed  about  the  bridge; 
next  to  this  is  placed  fine  gunpowder  for  firing  progressive 
powder-charges,  or  mercury  fulminate  for  high  explosive 
charges.  The  bridge  is  soldered  to  the  bared  ends  of  the  lead- 
wires. 

Commercial  detonating-primers  arc  made  on  the  same  gen- 
eral principle.  A  drawn  copper  tube,  closed  at  one  ei^d,  is  used 
for  the  lower  part  of  the  primer.  The  upper  tube  contains  a 
wooden  plug  sealed  with  sulphur,  which  carries  the  legs  con- 
necting the  bridge  with  the  leading  wires. 

A  modification  of  these  electric  primers  is  made  in  which 
the  wooden  plug  is  omitted,  leaving  the  mouth  open  for  insert- 
ing a  time-fuse  train.  In  using  a  time-fuse  insert  the  end  so 
as  to  touch  the  fulminate  in  the  lower  tube,  then  crimp  upper 
tube  tightly  down  on  time-fuse  with  pincers  or  crimpers. 

The  electric  primer  is  the  safest,  simplest,  cheapest,  and 
most  effective  means  of  firing  charges  of  high  explosives;  it  is 
the  only  means  used  of  firing  separate  charges  simultaneously, 
or  a  single  charge  at  a  distant  point,  or  at  a  required  moment, 
or  under  water. 

Different  grades  of  commercial  primers  or  blasting-caps  are 
known  to  the  trade.  They  are  specified  as  single,  double,  triple, 
quadruple  strength  caps.  These  are  charged  with  detonating 
composition  as  follows: 


176  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Single  strength 0.80  grams  (12.3  grains) 

Double  strength 1.00  grams  (15.4  grains) 

Triple  strength 1.50  grams  (23.1  grains) 

Quadruple  strength. . . .  2.00  grams  (30.9  grains) 

The  detonating  composition  varies  according  to  the  character 
of  the  work  to  be  done,  but  as  a  rule  consists  of  75  parts  of 
fulminate  of  mercury  and  25  parts  of  potassium  chlorate  pressed 
tightly  into  the  lower  tule ;  sometimes  a  little  gum  dissolved  in 
alcohol  is  added  to  make  the  mass  more  coherent.  The  func- 
tion of  potassium  chlorate,  sulphur,  nitrates,  etc.,  in  exploders 
has  already  been  explained. 

Blasting-caps  are  tested  by  inserting  the  cap  in  a  cork 
with  the  base  of  the  cap  flush  with  the  end  of  the  cork,  placing 
the  cap  with  base  resting  on  a  piece  of  wrought  iron,  No.  14 
A.  W.  G.,  supported  on  block  under  its  four  corners.  An 
efficient  cap  should  blow  a  clean  hole  through  the  iron.1 

The  standard  army  electrical  primer  for  high  explosives 
consists  of  the  following  details : 

1.  A  wooden  plug  grooved  longitudinally  on  opposite  sides 
to  receive  the  lead- wires,  and  cannelured  around  the  middle. 

1  A  recent  and  improved  "  sand  test  "  method  of  testing  blasting  powder 
is  that  which  has  been  developed  by  Messrs.  C.  G.  Storm  and  W.  C.  Cope. 
In  this  test  the  detonator  is  buried  in  the  center  of  100  grams  of  "  Ottawa 
standard  sand  "  contained  in  a  cylindrical  chamber,  approximately  15  cm. 
deep  and  3.1  cm.  in  diameter,  bored  out  of  a  steel  block.  The  sand  is  prac- 
tically pure  quartz,  passes  entirely  through  a  20-mesh  screen,  and  is  held 
on  a  30-mesh  screen.  The  grains  from  different  lots  are  of  remarkably  uni- 
form size.  After  the  detonator  has  been  fired  the  sand  is  screened,  and  the 
quantity  passing  through  a  30-mesh  screen  is  regarded  as  a  measure  of  the 
strength  of  the  detonator.  In  a  long  series  of  tests  Storm  and  Cope  found 
that  the  result  given  by  the  "  sand  test  "  was  a  definite  function  of  the  weight 
of  the  charge  and  that  the  quantities  of  sand  crushed  by  mercury  fulminate 
and  its  chlorate  mixtures  was  comparable  to  their  relative  efficiencies  in 
causing  complete  detonation  of  nitro  substitution  compounds.  The  test  is 
an  accurate  indication  of  the  grade  of  commercial  detonators.  Most  other 
direct  tests,  such  as  the  lead-plate  test,  are  not  quantitative,  or  depend  upon 
effects  not  easily  or  accurately  measured.  (Technical  Paper  125,  Department 
of  Interior,  Bureau  of  Mines,  1916.) 


EXPLODERS. 


177 


2.  The  lead-wires   (of  No.  18  A.  W.  G.  copper  wire,  with 
braided  and  paraffined  cotton  insulation)  are  pressed  into  the 
grooves,  half-way  in  one  groove,  then  in  the  circumferential 
cut  around  half-way  to  the  opposite  groove,  then  longitudinally 
to  the  end  of  the  plug,  each  wire  leaving  the  plug  in  the  side 
opposite  to  that  on  which  it  entered.     The  inside  ends  of  the 
wires  are  bared,  scraped,  cut  to  a  length  of  about  0.1",  tinned 
and  resined,  soldered  to  the  fine  wire  bridge,  and  bent  slightly 
toward  each  other. 

3.  This  plug  is  covered  with  a  cylindrical  cap  with  a  stout 
shoulder  at  one  end  and  having  a  small  hole  for  the  passage 
of  the  lead-wires.     The  cap  fits  the  plug  closely.    The  plug 
smeared  with  glue  is  forced  into  the  cap  until  the  end  of  the 
plug  abuts  firmly  against  the  shoulder,  leaving  a  chamber 
around  the  bridge  to  receive  the  priming. 

4.  The  priming-chamber  filled  with  mercury  fulminate  (4  grs.) 
is  closed  by  a  paper  disk  held  in  position  by  a  drop  of  collodion. 

5.  The  bridge  is  made  of  fine  platinum  wire  (.0025"  diameter, 
electrical  resistance  3  ohms  to  the  inch).     This  bridge  will  carry 
0.1  to  0.15  ampere  without  heating,  and  this  current  may  be 
used  for  testing;  for  firing,  a  current  of  about  0.5  ampere  should 
be  used;  the  length  of  the  bridge  is  ^j-inch. 

6.  The  body  of  the  primer  is  made  of  a  second  copper  cylin- 
der closed  at  one  end.      It  contains  20  grs.  of  fulminate  of 
marcury,  held  in  place  by  a  paper  disk  secured  by  a  drop  of 
collodion.     The  body  fits  over  the  cap  and  is  pushed  up  over 
it  and  crimped  into  the  wood  near  the  top. 

The  completed  primer  is  1.4-inch  long.  As  soon  as  finished 
it  is  dipped  into  melted  Japan  wax,  which  gives  an  even  water- 
proof coating. 

The  electrical  resistance  of  the  completed  primer  is  between 
0.7  and  0.8  ohm. 

On  account  of  the  high  cost  of  fulminate  of  mercury,  experi- 
ments have  been  recently  conducted  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
looking  to  the  replacement  of  a  portion  of  the  fulminate  of 
mercury  in  primers  by  other  explosives.  A  compound  primer 


178  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

has  given  satisfactory  results  made  up  of  a  mixture  of  a  base 
charge  of  0.40  gramT.N.T.  and  tetryl1  in  the  proportions  of  80 
per  cent  of  the  former  to  20  per  cent  of  the  latter,  combined  with 
0.32  gram  of  a  mixture  of  fulminate  of  mercury  and  chlorate 
of  potassium  in  the  proportion  of  90  to  10.  This  combination 
corresponds  to  a  No.  6  primer  in  the  series  experimented  with 
by  Storm,  a  full  description  of  which  will  be  found  in  Technical 
Paper  145,  Department  of  Interior,  Bureau  of  Mines. 

1  Trinitromethylnitramine,  which  has  the  structural  formula: 

/CH3 

N\ 
XN02 

NO—  /^j—  N02 

N02 

and  is  generally  known  as  tetranitromethylanilin. 


VII. 
SERVICE  TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 

General  Remarks  on  Tests. 

FROM  what  has  gone  before  it  will  be  understood  that  it  is 
of  great  importance  that  all  explosives  made  by  the  action  of 
nitric  acid  should  be  free  of  all  impurities,  especially  of  free 
acids  used  in  their  manufacture  and  of  by-nitro-substances  re- 
sulting from  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  the  raw  material  which 
may  not  itself  have  been  absolutely  pure.  If  any  of  these 
remain  in  a  nitro-explosive  it  is  liable  to  decompose  in  course 
of  time,  especially  if  it  be  exposed  to  temperatures  above  90°  F. 

All  high  explosives  are,  therefore,  subjected  to  certain  stan- 
dard tests  with  a  view  to  determine  their  stability,  and  especially 
the  probability  that  they  will  not  decompose  in  storage. 

Heat  of  sufficient  degree  will  decompose  all  nitro-compounds, 
and  even  when  the  heat  is  comparatively  low  it  will  decompose 
nitro-explosives  if  they  be  subjected  to  it  for  a  long  enough 
time,  the  time  required  to  initiate  decomposition  being  shorter 
as  the  temperature  is  higher. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  time  required  to  cause  incipient 
decomposition  of  a  nitro-explosive  is  a  measure  of  its  stability 
in  storage.  Experience  has  shown  that  if  a  nitro-explosive 
will  withstand  the  action  of  a  certain  temperature  for  a  certain 
time  its  stability  in  storage  may  be  assumed.  These  tem- 
peratures and  times  have  come  to  be  accepted  as  standard  tests. 

There  are  many  different  stability  heat- tests  which  have 
been  suggested  by  different  experimenters  (see  Journal  Ameri- 
can Chemical  Society,  March  and  June,  1903;  and  Journal 
U.S.  Artillery,  September-October,  1903),  but  only  three  will 

179 


i8o  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

be  described.  One  known  as  the  potassium-iodide-starch  test, 
another  as  the  litmus  test,  or  135°  C.  test,  or  German  test;  and 
the  third  as  the  U.  S.  Ordnance  115°  C.  powder-test.  The  first 
is  used  with  all  nitro-explosives,  the  135°  C.  German  test  is 
used  with  nitrocellulose  explosives,  the  115°  C.  U.  S.  Ordnance 
test  is  at  present  used  only  with  nitrocellulose  powders. 

In  the  potassium-iodide  test  the  length  of  time  is  noted 
that  is  required  to  discolor  a  small  test  starch-paper  saturated 
with  potassium  iodide  by  the  nitric  oxide  liberated  from  the 
explosive  by  heat.  In  the  litmus  test  the  time  is  noted  that 
is  required  to  redden  a  litmus- test  paper  by  fumes  of  N02. 
In  the  Army  115°  C.  test  the  rate  of  loss  of  weight  of  the  sample 
is  noted. 

Before  the  heat-test  is  begun,  preliminary  tests  for  free 
acids  should  be  made  with  blue  litmus  paper.  The  explosive 
in  pulverulent  state  is  placed  in  a  test-tube  (about  25  c.c.), 
the  tube  is  then  half  filled  with  distilled  water,  closed  with  cork 
and  shaken  well;  the  liquid  is  allowed  to  settle;  the  super- 
natant liquid  is  decanted  and  tested  with  blue  litmus  or  methyl- 
orange. 

Nitrocellulose  manufactured  for  use  in  making  smokeless 
powder  must  also  be  examined  for  the  presence  of  free  alkali 
in  the  same  way,  using  phenol  phthalein  as  the  indicator, 
and  all  nitrocelluloses  are  tested  for  the  presence  of  mercury 
chloride  in  small  quantity. 

Apparatus  Required  for  the  Potassium-iodide-starch  Test. 

The  apparatus  required  for  making  the  potassium-iodide- 
starch  test  consists  of  a  glass  or  copper  globe  or  cylinder  water- 
bath  about  8  inches  in  diameter,  with  an  aperture  of  about 
5  inches;  the  bath  is  filled  with  water  to  within  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  of  the  top  edge.  The  aperture  is  closed  by  a  loose 
cover  of  sheet  copper  about  6  inches  in  diameter.  The  globe 
rests  on  an  ordinary  iron  tripod,  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  globe 
is  about  10  inches  above  the  plane  of  the  feet  of  the  tripod. 


SERWCE   TESTS   OF  EXPLOSIVES.  181 

A  Berzelius  alcohol -lamp1  is  placed  under  the  globe.  The  cover 
has  four  to  eleven  holes :  one  in  the  center  for  a  thermometer 
fitted  into  a  rubber  stopper;  five  to  ten  at  equal  distances 
around  the  circumference  to  receive  test-tubes,  each  containing  a 
sample  of  the  explosive  to  be  tested.  The  test-tubes  after  being 
carefully  cleaned  and  dried  are  closed  by  clean  corks,  each  carry- 
ing, through  a  hole  bored  in,  it  a  glass  rod  with  platinum-wire 
hook  on  the  lower  end;  this  hook  during  the  test  supports  the 
potassium-iodide-starch  test-paper.  The  test-tube  corks  are 
discarded  after  one  test.  The  test-papers  should  be  obtained 
from  a  standard  source,  as  the  value  of  the  test  depends  chiefly 
on  the  uniformity  and  proper  degree  of  sensitiveness  of  the  test- 
papers.  In  case  of  emergency  the  potassium-iodide-starch  test- 
paper  may  be  made  as  follows : 

Forty-five  grains  of  white  maize  starch  (corn  flour), 
previously  washed  with  cold  water,  are  added  to  8J 
ounces  of  distilled  water,  the  mixture  is  stirred,  and 
boiled  for  10  minutes. 

Fifteen  grains  of  pure  potassium  iodide  (crystallized 
from  alcohol)  are  dissolved  in  8J  ounces  of  distilled 
water. 

The  two  solutions  are  thoroughly  mixed  and  allowed 
to  cool. 

Strips  or  sheets  of  white  filter-paper,  previously 
washed  with  water  and  redried,  are  dipped  into  the  solu- 
tion and  allowed  to  remain  in  it  for  at  least  10  seconds; 
they  are  then  allowed  to  drain  and  dry  in  a  place  free 
from  laboratory  fumes  and  dust. 

The  upper  and  lower  margins  of  the  strips  are  cut  off. 

The  paper  is  preserved  in  well-stoppered  bottles  and 
in  the  dark. 

Freshly  made  and  suitable  paper  should  give  no  discolora- 
tion if  touched  with  a  glass  rod  holding  a  drop  of  acetic  acid. 
When  a  brownish  or  bluish  spot  appears  from  acetic  acid  so 
applied  the  paper  should  be  rejected.  Often  an  exposure  of 

1  Any  convenient  source  of  heat  may  be  used. 


182  NOTES  CW  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

one  hour  to  bright  light  will  destroy  a  set  of  test-papers.   Papers 
over  a  month  old  are  apt  to  be  untrustworthy. 

Owing  to  the  differences  obtained  by  different  operators  in 
making  the  Kl-starch  stability  test,  the  joint  Army  and  Navy 
Board  on  Smokeless  Powder  has  recommended  that  a  color 
scale  of  tiles,  having  standard  tints,  be  used  by  operators,  in 
all  cases,  to  determine  when  the  red  line  of  proper  tint  appears 
on  the  Kl-starch  paper  marking  the  completion  of  the  test. 

(a)  Dynamite,  Nitroglycerine,  and  Explosive  Gelatin. 

Dynamite. — If  dynamite  is  to  be  tested  the  nitroglycerine 
must  be  extracted  from  the  base.  To  accomplish  this,  advantage 
is  taken  of  the  fact  that  water  will  displace  nitroglycerine  from 
such  mechanical  mixtures  as  kieselguhr  dynamite.  The  further 
test  then  becomes  one  simply  of  the  nitroglycerine. 

To  Extract  Nitroglycerine  from  Kieselguhr  Dynamite. 

A  funnel,  about  2  inches  across,  is  arranged  so  as  to  filter 
into  a  small  beaker.  About  300  to  600  grains  of  dynamite 
finely  divided  are  placed  in  the  funnel,  which  has  previously 
been  loosely  plugged  by  some  asbestos  wool.  The  latter  should 
have  been  recently  heated  to  white  heat  and  allowed  to  cool. 

The  surface  of  the  dynanu'te  is  smoothed  off  carefully  by 
means  of  a  flat-headed  glass  rod  or  stopper  #nd  some  clean, 
washed  and  dried  kieselguhr  is  spread  over  it  to  the  depth  of 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch.  This  top  layer  of  kieselguhr 
is  then  carefully  and  evenly  saturated  with  distilled  water  by 
a  fine  jet  from  a  water  bottle.  As  soon  as  the  first  water  has 
been  absorbed  into  the  mass  of  dynamite  more  is  added.  This 
is  continued.  The  displaced  nitroglycerine  will,  after  some  time, 
begin  to  drop  into  the  measure  below  the  funnel.  The  opera- 
tion is  discontinued  when  enough  nitroglycerine  has  been 
collected  to  allow  50  grains  for  each  test  tube. 

The  Potassium-iodide-starch  Heat-test. 

Nitroglycerine. — The  water-bath  of  the  potassium-iodide- 
starch  testing-apparatus  is  brought  to  160°  F.  (71°  C.)  and 
maintained  at  that  temperature,  being  regulated  by  the  ther- 


SERVICE   TESTS   OF  EXPLOSIVES.  183 

mometer  which  should  be  immersed  about  2f  inches  in  the 
water.  The  source  of  heat  should  be  carefully  watched,  and  at 
no  time  should  the  temperature  of  the  bath  rise  or  fall  more  than 
1°  F.  from  160°  F.  Fifty  grains  of  nitroglycerine  are  placed  in 
each  test-tube  and  carefully  weighed,  being  careful  not  to  get 
any  on  the  sides  of  the  test-tube;  this  may  be  done  by  using 
a  suitable  dropper  or  glass  tube. 

A  piece  of  test-paper  is  taken  with  the  pincers  and  laid 
down  on  a  piece  of  clean  filter-paper.  The  test-paper  is  held 
in  place  by  the  end  of  a  glass  rod  which  has  been  thoroughly 
cleaned,  heated,  and  cooled.  A  small  hole  is  made  in  the  test- 
paper  with  the  point  of  the  pincers  opposite  the  middle  of  one 
end  of  the  paper  and  about  0.2  inch  from  the  edge.  The  test- 
paper  is  taken  up  with  the  pincers,  the  platinum  hook  inserted 
through  the  hole  just  made,  the  hook  bent  with  the  pincers 
until  the  throat  of  the  hook  is  closed  tightly  on  the  paper,  so 
that  it  will  stand  stiffly  up  when  the  paper  is  held  vertically 
above  the  glass  rod.  The  glass  rod  with  test-paper  is  placed 
carefully  aside  under  a  bell  glass  or  other  protecting  cover, 
where  it  will  be  protected  from  fumes  and  dust.  In  the  same 
way  the  other  test-papers  are  prepared. 

A  solution  of  pure  glycerine  and  distilled  water,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  to  1,  is  prepared. 

One  of  the  test-papers  is  taken,  held  with  the  paper  up,  and 
a  drop  of  the  glycerine  solution  is  placed  on  each  of  the  lower 
corners  of  the  test-paper,  as  held;  the  paper  should  absorb  this 
evenly  about  half-way  to  the  opposite  upper  edge,  as  held, 
leaving  a  distinct  line  about  midway  between  the  moistened 
and  the  unmoistened  parts.  One  of  the  test  tubes  is  placed 
in  the  bath  through  one  of  the  apertures  in  the  cover  and  is 
immersed  until  the  sample  is  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 
The  test-paper  moistened  with  glycerine  is  placed  in  the  test- 
tube,  and  the  glass  rod  is  moved  through  the  cork  until  the 
line  between  the  moistened  and  unmoistened  parts  of  the 
test-paper  is  about  five-eighths  of  an  inch  above  the  upper 
surface  of  the  cover.  This  time  is  recorded.  The  same  is 
done  with  each  of  the  other  two  test-papers.  The  line  between 


184  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

the  moistened  and  unmoistened  parts  of  each  test-paper  is 
watched  carefully,  and  the  exact  instant  that  a  faint  brown 
color1  appears  on  this  line  of  demarkation  on  each  test-paper 
is  recorded.  This  completes  the  test. 

The  nitroglycerine  under  examination  will  not  be  considered 
"thoroughly  purified"  unless  the  time  elapsed  between  the 
insertion  of  the  test-paper  and  the  appearance  of  the  brown 
color  is  at  least  fifteen  minutes.  The  average  of  the  records  of  all 
the  tubes  will  be  taken. 

Explosive  Gelatin. — If  explosive  gelatin  is  under  examination 
a  sample  of  50  grains  is  intimately  incorporated  with  100  grains 
of  French  chalk,  using  a  wooden  pestle  in  a  wooden  mortar. 
The  French  chalk  should  be  of  good  commercial  quality;  it 
should  be  thoroughly  washed  with  distilled  water,  dried  in  a 
water-oven,  and  then  exposed  to  moist  air  under  a  bell  jar  until 
it  has  taken  up  about  0.5  per  cent  of  moisture.  It  should  then 
be  placed  in  a  glass-stoppered  jar  for  use. 

Each  test-tube  is  rilled  with  this  mixture  to  a  depth  of  1} 
inches,  the  tube  being  gently  tapped  on  a  table  to  insure  a 
proper  degree  of  settling. 

The  heat-test  is  then  conducted  as  explained  for  nitroglycer- 
ine. Explosive  gelatin  will  not  be  considered  as  serviceable 
unless  the  average  time  of  the  test  is  at  least  ten  minutes. 

Explosive  gelatin  is  subjected  also  to  a  liquefaction  and 
exudation  test  as  follows  : 

Liquefaction  Test  of  Explosive  Gelatin. 

A  cylinder  is  cut  from  the  cartridge  having  its  height  equal 
to  its  diameter,  care  being  taken  to  have  the  ends  cut  flat  and 
true. 

This  cylinder  is  placed  on  a  piece  of  filter-paper  on  a  smooth, 
clean  board,  and  secured  to  the  board  by  an  ordinary  pin  forced 
through  it  along  its  axis  into  the  board. 

1  In  order  to  detect  this  color  promptly,  the  water-bath  should  be  so 
placed  that  a  bright  reflected  light  shall  fall  on  the  papers. 


SERVICE   TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  185 

It  is  exposed  in  this  condition  for  144  consecutive  hours  to 
a  temperature  ranging  from  85°  to  90°  F. 

The  original  height  of  the  cylinder  should  not  decrease 
more  than  one-fourth,  and  the  upper  cut  surface  should  retain 
its  flatness  and  sharpness  of  edge. 

Exudation  Test  of  Explosive  Gelatin. 

There  should  be  no  separation  of  nitroglycerine  in  the  lique- 
faction test  or  under  any  conditions  of  storage,  transport,  or 
use,  or  when  the  explosive  is  subjected  three  times  in  succession 
to  alternate  freezing  and  thawing. 

(b)  Guncotton. 

Loose-fiber  Guncotton. — The  material  is  dried  at  a  tempera- 
ture not  greater  than  40°  C.  to  constant  weight;  then  exposed 
on  trays  to  the  air  in  a  room  free  from  fumes,  until  from  1 
to  2  per  cent  of  moisture  has  been  absorbed.  It  is  then 
gently  rubbed  through  a  ten-mesh  sieve  to  insure  uniformity 
of  division,  being  careful  that  it  does  not  come  in  contact  with 
the  hands  or  any  piece  of  apparatus  not  perfectly  free  from 
any  trace  of  acid  or  alkali.  1.3  grams  are  weighed  out  and 
placed  in  a  test-tube  5J  to  6  inches  long  and  not  less  than  \  inch 
internal  diameter. 

The  potassium-iodide-starch  test  is  conducted  as  explained 
for  nitroglycerine,  except  that  the  water-bath  is  heated  to 
150°  F.  (65.5°  C.).  The  test-papers,  prepared  as  already  ex- 
plained, are  inserted  in  the  test-tubes,1  and  the  papers  adjusted 
in  the  tubes  so  that  the  line  dividing  the  dry  and  moist  por- 
tions of  the  test-paper  is  on  a  level  with  the  lower  edge  of  the  film 
of  moisture  which  is  deposited  on  the  side  of  the  tube  soon  after 
inserting  it  in  the  bath. 

1  The  standard  water- bath  for  nitrocellulose  holds  ten  tubes;  it  is  long 
and  narrow  to  prevent  heating  the  upper  part  of  the  tubes  as  much  as 
possible.  Tubes  are  immersed  2f  inches  in  the  bath. 


i86  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Nitrocellulose  intended  for  the  manufacture  of  smokeless 
powder  for  the  Army  and  Navy  must  not  show  a  brown  color 
in  less  than  35  minutes  at  65.5°  C. 

Blocks  or  Disks. — Guncotton  for  demolition  purposes  is 
issued  in  the  form  of  compressed  pulp,  in  disks  or  blocks.  This 
form  of  guncotton  is  prepared  for  the  heat-test  as  follows: 

Sufficient  material  to  serve  for  two  or  more  tests  is  removed 
from  the  center  of  a  block  or  disk  by  scraping,  and  reduced 
to  a  fine  powder  by  rubbing  between  pieces  of  clean,  dry  filter- 
paper.  This  is  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer  upon  a  paper  tray 
about  6  by  4J  inches,  which  is  then  placed  inside  a  water- 
oven,  kept  as  nearly  as  possible  at  120°  F.  for  15  minutes, 
the  door  of  the  oven  being  left  wide  open.  The  tray  is  then 
removed  and  exposed  to  the  air  of  the  room  for  two  hours; 
during  this  time  the  material  is  rubbed  on  the  paper  tray  with 
a  clean  glass  rod  and  reduced  to  a  fine  and  uniform  state  of 
division. 

The  temperature  of  the  water-bath  is  the  same  as  for  fiber 
guncotton  (150°  F.). 

There  should  be  no  brown  color  within  10  minutes. 

Poacher  Sample. — In  case  the  sample  is  taken  during  the 
manufacture  of  nitrocellulose,  it  is  taken  after  the  poaching  and 
after  having  been  thoroughly  washed  in  pure,  cold  water.  The 
sample  is  pressed  dry  in  a  hand-press  and  rubbed  in  a  clean 
cloth  until  finely  divided,  being  careful  not  to  let  it  come  in 
contact  with  the  hands. 

(c)  Smokeless  Powder. 

The  sample  should  be  prepared  by  cutting  into  slices  0.02 
inch  thick.  These  slices  are  exposed  to  the  air  for  at  least 
12  hours. 

The  test-tube  sample  consists  of  1.3  grams. 

The  usual  potassium-iodide  test  is  followed,  except  that 
the  temperature  is  considerably  higher  for  simple  nitrocellulose 
powders,  being  100°  C.  (212°  F.)  instead  of  65.5°  C.  (150°  F.). 


SERVICE   TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  187 

Each  sample  must  stand  this  temperature  without  showing  a 
brown  line  for  10  minutes. 

Powders  containing  nitroglycerine  should  stand  the  test  at 
65.5°  C.  for  20  minutes. 

The  British  Government  specifications  prescribe  the  follow- 
ing times  and  temperatures  for  the  potassium-iodide  test : 

1.  Nitroglycerine 15  minutes  at  160°  F.  (71°  C.). 

2.  Dynamite 15       "        "  160°  F.  (71°  C.). 

3.  Explosive  gelatin 10       "  '     "  160°  F.  (71°  C.). 

4.  Smokeless   powders  with 

nitroglycerine.. . . 15       "        "  180°  F.  (82°  C.). 

5.  Guncotton 10       "        "  170°  F.  (76.6°  C.). 

6.  Colloided  pyrocellulose.  .  .  15       "        "  180°  F.  (82°  C.). 

The  German  135°  C.  Test. 

Two  and  five-tenths  grams  of  the  sample  to  be  tested  are 
dried  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  laboratory  for  12  hours 
and  placed  in  a  strong  test-tube.  A  piece  of  blue  litmus  is 
placed  in  the  tube  about  a  half-inch  above  the  sample,  the 
paper  being  folded  lightly  so  as  to  give  the  folds  sufficient  elastic 
power  to  hold  the  paper  in  place  by  pressure  against  the  sides 
of  the  tube.  The  tube  is  lightly  clos'ed  by  a  cork  with  a  hole 
0.15  of  an  inch  in  diameter  bored  through  it,  and  so  placed  in 
a  bath  of  boiling  xylol  (the  boiling-point  of  which  is  135°) 
that  only  6  or  7  mm.  project  above  the  surface. 

Examination  of  each  tube  is  made  each  five  minutes  after 
twenty  minutes  have  elapsed.  In  making  this  examination  the 
tube  should  be  withdrawn  only  half  its  length  and  quickly  re- 
placed. 

Two  tubes  are  used  in  each  test,  and  there  must  be  no  failure 
in  either  tube. 

Three  observations  are  made :  (1)  Time  of  complete  redden- 
ing of  the  litmus-paper;  (2)  time  of  appearance  of  brown  nitric- 
peroxide  fumes;  (3)  time  at  which  the  sample  exploded. 


1 88  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Stable  explosives  should  give  the  following  times: 


Litmus  not 
Reddened  in 

No  Nitric 
Fumes  in 

No  Explo- 
sion in 

Uncolloided  nitrocellulose  
Pure  nitrocellulose  powder  "... 
Nitroglycerine  powders  

30  min. 
1  hr.  15  min. 
30  min. 

45  min. 
2  hrs. 
45  min 

5  hrs. 
5  hrs. 
5  hrs 

The  substitution  of  methyl  violet  paper  for  litmus  paper  in 
the  135°  German  test  has  been  recommended.  When  this  sub- 
stitution is  made,  the  time  of  the  test  should  be  less  than  that 
with  litmus  paper  by  5  minutes  for  uncolloided  nitrocellulose 
and  15  minutes  for  finished  powder. 

For  the  results  to  have  value  they  should  be  compared  with 
that  of  a  known  stable  explosive  of  the  same  kind,  under  the 
same  test  by  the  same  operator,  using  the  same  test-paper. 

Uncolloided  nitrocellulose  should  be  well  shaken  down  in  the 
tube  by  tapping,  or  lightly  pressed  down. 

The  U.  S.  Army  Ordnance  115°  C.  Test. 

(For  nitrocellulose  powders.) 

Whole  pieces  of  powder  are  carefully  weighed  on  watch- 
glasses  and  then  heated  in  an  air-bath  kept  at  115°  C.  +  or  -  J° 
for  8  hours.  The  sample  is  then  removed,  allowed  to  cool  in 
a  desiccator,  and  reweighed.  This  is  repeated  six  times  on 
six  separate  days.  The  oven  is  brought  to  the  required  tem- 
perature each  day  before  inserting  the  samples.  At  the  end  of 
the  8-hour  period  the  samples  are  removed  and  allowed  to 
stand  over  night.  At  the  end  of  the  6-day  period  the  samples 
are  allowed  to  cool  in  a  desiccator,  after  which  they  are  again 
weighed.  The  loss  of  weight  must  not  exceed  the  limit  shown 
by  the  test-curve,  p.  187. 

The  air-bath  may  be  maintained  at  115°  by  filling  the  walls 
of  the  oven  with  a  properly  proportioned  mixture  of  xylol  and 
toluol.  A  reflux  condenser  prevents  loss  of  the  liquid  by 
evaporation. 

The  temperature,  115°  Cv  is  the  one  that  most  clearly 
differentiates  the  decomposition  of  good  powders  from  bad 


SERVICE   TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  rfg 

ones  in  a  reasonable  time  limit.  If  a  lower  temperature  is 
used,  it  requires  too  long  a  time  to  establish  trustworthy  data; 
if  a  higher  temperature  is  used,  the  curves  plotted  to  show  the 
rate  of  loss  of  weight  of  good  powders  are  not  so  clearly  sepa- 
rated from  those  plotted  to  show  the  same  for  bad  powders. 


.160 


500 

100  110     "       120 

Red  Fumes  in  Day^ 

The  following  advantages  are  claimed  for  this  test: 

1.  The  powder  is  tested  in  its  natural  condition;  the 
same  in  which  it  is  stored  or  used. 

2.  It  shows  all  products  of  decomposition;    others 
show  only  acid  or  nitrogen  losses  by  decomposition. 

3.  It  shows  the  decomposition  of  other  nitro-coin- 
pounds  than  nitrocellulose  which  are  often  present  in 


1 90  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

powders,  and  shows  the  effect  of  these  on  the  decom- 
position of  the  powder. 

4.  It  shows  the  effect  on  the  stability  of  powder  of 
added  substances,  placed  there  to  mask  stability  tests; 
the  effect  of  volatiles  which  may  set  up  local  decom- 
position;   traces  of  nitric  acid;    decomposition  of  the 
nitrocellulose  due  to  saponification  by  water,  alkalies, 
carbonates,  etc. 

5.  It  shows  quantitatively  the  progress  of  all  decom- 
positions. 

6.  It  is  a  simple  test,  and  requires  only  simple  appa- 
ratus to  make  it. 

The  following  are  the  latest  specifications  (July,  1910) 
prescribed  for  powders  for  cannon,  and  for  nitrocellulose  for 
powders  or  other  explosives  used  in  the  United  States  service. 


MANUFACTURE,  INSPECTION,  AND  TEST, 
i.  Raw  Materials. 

(a)  Cellulose. — The  material  to  be  used  is  bleached  cellulose, 
prepared  for  nitrating,  which  will  be  obtained  by  purifying 
unspun  cotton  wastes,  or  suitable  short-fibered  commercial 
cotton,  and  thoroughly  washing  to  remove  the  purifying  ma- 
terial or  salts;  it  is  to  contain  not  more  than  0.4  per  cent  of 
extractive  matter,  and  not  more  than  0.8  per  cent  of  ash;  it 
is  to  be  of  uniform  character,  clean,  and  free  from  such  lumps 
as  will  prevent  uniform  nitration.  It  should  not  contain  more 
than  ''traces"  of  lime,  chlorides,  or  sulphates. 

The  extractive  matter  will  be  determined  by  extracting 
not  less  than  1.5  grams  of  cotton  in  a  Wiley  or  Soxhlet  ex- 
tractor with  ethyl  ether  and  weighing  the  extracted  matter, 
after  drying  at  100°  C. ;  the  percentage  is  to  be  calculated  on 
dry  cotton.  Ash  will  be  determined  by  digesting  about  1.5 
grams  of  cotton  with  a  little  pure  nitric  acid,  incinerating  at 


SERVICE  ,  TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  191 

ft  red  heat,  and  weighing  the  residue,  the  percentage  to  be 
calculated  on  dry  cotton. 

Moisture  will  be  determined  by  drying  not  less  than  3  grams 
of  cotton,  at  105°  C.,  to  constant  weight. 

(6)  Acids. — A  mixture  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  will  be 
used,  containing  no  metallic  salts  other  than  salts  of  iron,  and 
not  more  than  a  trace  of  chlorine  compounds. 

(c)  Ether. — Ethyl  ether  will  be  used,  containing  no  impuri- 
ties other  than  small  quantities  of  water  and  ethyl  alcohol. 
The  ether  to  be  clear  and  colorless,  with  characteristic  pure 
odor,  having  less  than  0.006  per  cent  acidity,  calculated  as 
acetic  acid,  and  less  than  0.002  per  cent  residue  after  evapora- 
tion and  drying  at  100°C.;    and  specific  gravity,  at  20°  C., 
to  be  from  0.717  to  0.723. 

(d)  Alcohol. — Ethyl   alcohol    92.3    per    cent    absolute    (by 
weight)  will  be  used;  it  is  to  be  of  the  best  quality,  clear,  and 
colorless,  with  characteristic  pure  odor,  having  less  than  0.006 
per  cent  residue  after  evaporation  and  drying  at  100°  C.,  and 
acidity  less  than  0.01  per  cent,  calculated  as  acetic  acid.    It 
shall  be  subjected  to  the  silver  nitrate  test,  as  follows: 

3  grams  AgNO3,  c.  p 1 

3  grams  NaOH,  c.  p L  Make  up  to  100  c.c. 

20  grams  NH4OH,  c.  p.  (sp.  gr.  0.90)  J 

Ten  cubic  centimeters  of  the  sample,  diluted  with  10  cubic 
centimeters  of  water,  to  be  placed  in  a  tight  bottle  and  1  cubic 
centimeter  of  the  silver  nitrate  solution  added.  Allow  to 
stand  one  hour  in  the  dark  and  examine  for  unreduced  silver 
salts  in  clear  solution,  after  filtering;  if  such  are  found,  the 
alcohol  contains  less  than  the  allowable  amount  of  aldehyde. 

The  strength  of  alcohol  is  calculated  by  the  use  of  the 
alcohol  tables  published  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Standards. 

(e)  Ether  and  alcohol  obtained  from  any  of  the  manufac- 
turing processes  as  recovered  solvent  are,  before  use  for  colloid- 
ing,  to  be  put  in  condition  for  fulfilling  the  requirements  of  (c) 
and  (d). 


IQ2  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

(f)  Graphite.^l.t  graphite  is  used  on  the  surface  of  powder 
grains,  or  is  incorporated  in  the  powder,  it  shall  be  dry,  ground 
very  fine,  and  shall  contain  not  more  than  a  trace  of  silicates 
or  compounds  of  sulphur,  and  shall  be  free  from  sulphur  and 
acids. 

(g)  Carbonate  of  soda. — The  best  quality  of  refined  alkali, 
free  from  sulphides,  containing  not  less  than  96  per  cent  of 

calculated  on  dry  samples,  will  be  used. 


2.  Nitrocellulose — Manufacturing  Processes. 

(a)  Quality. — 

(1)  The  nitrocellulose  in  finished  poacher  lots  shall  have  a 
nitration  of  12.60  per  cent,  ±0.1  per  cent.     These  lots  may  be 
made  up  by  blending  nitrocellulose  which  contains  from  12.45 
to  12.75  per  cent  nitrogen  and  at  least  95  per  cent  solubility. 

(2)  It  shall  have  a  solubility  of  at  least  95  per  cent  at  15.5°  C. 
in  a  mixture  of  two  volumes  of  ether  and  one  volume  of  alcohol, 
both  of  the  standard  quality  prescribed  by  these  specifications. 

(3)  It  shall  contain  less  than  0.4  per  cent  of  material  in- 
soluble in  acetone. 

(4)  It  shall  leave,  after  ignition,  less  than  0.4  per  cent 
of  ash. 

(5)  It  shall  give  a  heat  test,  at  65.5°  C.,  with  potassium 
iodide  starch  paper,  of  at  least  thirty-five  minutes. 

(6)  It  shall  give  a  "  German  "  test,  at  135°  C.,  with  litmus 
paper,  of  at  least  thirty  minutes. 

(7)  It  shall  contain  no  alkali,  mercuric  chloride,  or  other 
substance  which  will  mask  the  heat  tests  in  any  way. 

(8)  It  shall  be  uniformly  pulped,  free  from  lumps,  strings, 
or  material  of  such  consistency  as  to  affect  proper  colloiding 
in  the  mixers. 

(6)  Nitrating. — Cellulose  of  standard  quality  shall  be  thor- 
oughly dried  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  110°  C.  When 
cold,  this  cellulose  shall  be  nitrated  in  mixed  nitric  and  sul- 


SERVICE  TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  193 

phuric  acids.    After  nitrating,  the  nitrocellulose  shall  be  washed 
in  water  before  boiling. 

(c)  Preliminary  boiling. — The  nitrocellulose  shall  next  be 
boiled  for  at  least  forty  hours,  with  not  less  than  four  changes 
of  water,  in  tubs  so  constructed  that  the  nitrocellulose  shall  not 
come  into  direct  contact  with  the  heating  coils  or  with  the 
steam  from  the  coils.     There  shall  be  complete  ebullition,  or 
boiling,  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  tubs.     No  alkali  shall  be 
used  in  the  preliminary  boiling. 

(d)  Pulping. — The  nitrocellulose  shall  next  be  pulped  in 
fresh  water,  to  which  may  be  added  just  enough  sodium-car- 
bonate solution  to  preserve  a  slight  alkaline  reaction  to  phenol- 
phthalein  solution,  the  process  to  continue  until  the  material 
is  thoroughly  and  evenly  pulped  to  a  satisfactory  degree  of 
fineness,  and  shows  a  clean  break  when  a  handful  is  squeezed 
and  broken  !nto  parts.     During  this  process  the  water  shall  be 
changed  to  such  an  extent  as  may  be  necessary  to  remove  im- 
purities. 

(e)  Poaching. — After  pulping,  the  nitrocellulose  pulp  shall 
be  run  into  the  poachers,  settled,  and  the  water  decanted. 
The  nitrocellulose  shall  then  be  boiled  for  six  hours  in  fresh 
water,  during  which  time  a  total  of  not  more  than  10  gallons 
of  carbonate  of  soda  solution  for  each  2,000  pounds  of  dry 
nitrocellulose  may  be  added  at  intervals;  this  solution  shall 
contain  1  pound  of  carbonate  of  soda  to  the  gallon.     During 
this  and  all  other  boiling  in  the  poachers  the  pulp  shall  be 
thoroughly  agitated  by  mechanical  stirrers.     After  boiling,  the 
nitrocellulose  shall  be  allowed  to  settle  and  the  clear  water 
decanted  as  completely  as  possible.    The  tub  shall  then  be 
refilled  with  fresh  water,  boiled  for  two  hours,  settled,  decanted, 
and  refilled  with  fresh  water.     The  boiling  shall  then  be  con- 
tinued for  one  hour,  and  this  process  repeated  three  times, 
making  a  total  boiling  treatment  in  the  poachers  as  follows : 

Six  hours'  boiling,  with  or  without  sodium  carbonate,  settle,  change 

water. 
Two  hours'  boiling,  no  soda,  settle,  change  water. 


194  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

One  hours'  boiling,  no  soda,  settle,  change  water. 
One  hours'  boiling,  no  soda,  settle,  change  water. 
One  hours'  boiling,  no  soda,  settle,  change  water. 
One  hours'  boiling,  no  soda,  settle,  change  water. 
Total,  twelve  hours'  boiling  with  five  changes  of  water. 

After  boiling,  the  nitrocellulose  shall  have  ten  cold-water 
washings,  each  washing  to  consist  of  agitation,  by  mechanical 
means,  for  one-half  hour  in  a  sufficient  amount  of  fresh  water, 
thorough  settling,  and  decanting  the  clear  water;  in  decanting, 
at  least  40  per  cent  of  the  total  contents  of  the  poacher  shall  be 
drawn  off.  A  sample  shall  then  be  taken  for  subjection  to  the 
various  tests  prescribed  for  nitrocellulose.  Should  the  nitro- 
cellulose fail  to  meet  the  required  heat  tests,  it  must  be  boiled 
again  with  two  changes  of  water,  the  time  of  actual  boiling 
being  five  hours,  without  the  use  of  alkali,  and  must  then  be 
given  the  ten  cold-water  washings  in  the  manner  prescribed  for 
the  regular  treatment. 

The  utmost  cleanliness  shall  be  observed  in  manufacture. 
All  machinery,  tools,  and  appliances  shall  be  kept  in  the  con- 
dition necessary  to  prevent  the  incorporation  in  the  nitro- 
cellulose of  foreign  matter  of  any  kind.  At  all  stages  of  the 
process  the  water  used  shall  be  clean  and  free  from  deleterious 
matter. 

3.  Testing  Nitrocellulose. 

(a)  Sampling. — Each  poacher  lot  or  blend  will  be  given  a 
designating  number.  A  sample  of  about  150  grams  dry  weight 
shall  be  selected  by  the  inspector  from  each  poacher  charge 
after  purification  is  complete,  and  this  shall  be  properly  marked 
and  sent  for  examination.  If  a  lot  or  blend  is  made  up  by 
blending  various  weights  of  nitrocellulose  of  nitration  of  12.45 
to  12.75  per  cent,  each  nitrocellulose  included  therein  shall  be 
similarly  sampled  for  analysis. 

(6)  65.5°  C.  heat  test,  icith  potassium  iodide  starch  paper. — 
The  sample  shall  be  pressed  in  a  clean  cloth  or  wrung  in  a 
wringer,  if  it  contains  a  large  excess  of  water.  The  cake  shall 


SERVICE    TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  195 

be  rubbed  up  in  a  cloth  until  fine  (taking  care  that  it  does  not 
come  in  contact  with  the  hands) ,  spread  out  on  clean  paper  trays, 
and  dried  in  an  air  bath  at  35°  to  43°  C.  for  a  sufficient  length  of 
time  to  reduce  the  moisture  to  the  amount  required  to  give  a 
minimum  heat  test;  this  amount  being  from  1.5  to  2  per  cent. 
If,  as  sometimes  happens  in  dry  weather,  the  moisture  has  been 
reduced  to  less  than  1.5  per  cent,  the  sample  shall  be  placed  in 
a  moist  atmosphere  for  a  time  not  exceeding  two  hours,  until 
the  required  moisture  percentage  is  obtained.  The  whole  time 
of  drying  and  making  the  test  shall  not  exceed  eight  hours. 

The  dried  sample  for  the  heat  test  shall  be  weighed  out  in 
five  test-tubes,  1.3  grams  (20  grains)  to  each  tube,  so  that  a 
series  is  obtained  covering  the  widest  variation  allowed  for 
moisture.  These  tubes  are  standard,  5J  inches  long,  one-half 
inch  internal  diameter,  and  five-eighths  inch  external  diameter, 
closed  by  a  clean  cork  stopper,  fitting  tightly,  through  which 
passes  a  tight  glass  rod  with  platinum  holder  for  the  paper; 
corks  are  discarded  after  one  test.  The  nitrocellulose  is  pressed 
or  shaken  down  in  the  tube  until  it  occupies  a  space  in  the 
tube  of  If  inches.  The  test  papers,  about  1  inch  in  length 
and  three-eighths  inch  wide,  are  hung  on  the  platinum  holders 
and  moistened  on  the  upper  half  with  a  50  per  cent  solution  of 
pure  glycerin  in  water.  The  heating  bath,  carefully  regulated 
at  65.5°  C.  ±1°  C.,  is  placed  so  that  a  bright,  reflected  light  is 
obtained,  and  tubes  placed  in  the  bath.  Time  is  marked  when 
tubes  enter  bath.  As  test  continues,  a  slight  film  of  moisture 
condenses  on  inside  of  tubes,  and  the  line  of  demarcation  be- 
tween wet  and  dry  test  paper  is  kept  abreast  the  lower  edge  of 
the  moisture  film.  The  first  appearance  of  discoloration  of  the 
damp  portion  of  the  test  paper  marks  the  end  of  the  test  for 
each  separate  tube,  the  minimum  test  of  any  one  of  the  five 
tubes  being  the  heat  test  of  the  nitrocellulose.  The  discolora- 
tion is  to  be  greater  than  that  obtained  at  the  same  time  by  a 
blank  test. 

Standard  test  papers  will  be  used  and  will  be  furnished  by 
the  department  to  manufacturers.  The  standard  water  bath 


196  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

holds  ten  tubes  and  is  made  long  and  narrow,  to  reduce  to  a 
minimum  the  heating  of  the  upper  portions  of  the  tubes.  These 
tubes  are  immersed  in  the  bath  to  a  standard  depth  of  2.25 
inches. 

(c)  "  German  "  test  at  135°  C. — A  sample  of  nitrocellulose 
shall  be  dried  at  ordinary  laboratory  temperature  over  night, 
or,  as  for  the  heat  test;   2.5  grams  of  the  material  are  to  be 
pressed  into  the  lower  2  inches  in  each  of  two  tubes,  of  heavy 
glass  about  290  millimeters  long,  18  millimeters  outside  diameter, 
and  15  millimeters  inside  diameter,  closed  with  a  cork  stopper 
through  which  a  hole  4  millimeters  in  diameter  has  been  bored. 
A  piece  of  standard  blue  litmus  paper  70  millimeters  long  and 
20  millimeters  wide  is  placed  in  each  tube,  its  lower  edge  25 
millimeters  above  the  cotton.    When  the  constant  temperature 
bath  has  been  carefully  regulated  at  134.5°  C.  ±0.5°  C.,  these 
tubes  are  placed  in  the  bath  so  that  not  more  than  6  or  7  mil- 
limeters of  length  projects  from  bath.    Examination  of  the 
tube  is  made  by  withdrawing  about  one-half  its  length  and 
replacing  quickly,  each  five  minutes,  after  twenty  minutes  have 
elapsed. 

The  bath  must  be  placed  in  a  good  light  and  with  a  suitable 
background.  The  standard  litmus  papers  will  be  furnished  by 
the  department.  The  test  shall  be  considered  completed  when 
the  litmus  paper  is  completely  reddened,  and  the  minimum 
test  of  either  tube  shall  be  taken  as  the  test  of  the  lot.  The 
standard  red  color  must  not  be  obtained  in  less  than  thirty 
minutes. 

(d)  Nitration. — The  nitration  will  be  determined  on  a  1-gram 
sample  of  nitrocellulose  after  drying  for  one  hour  and  a  half  at 
95°  to  100°  C.  or  in  a  vacuum  drier  after  a  thorough  air  drying. 
The  nitrocellulose  is  to  be  washed  into  a  Du  Pont  nitrometer  by 
20  cubic  centimeters  of  H2S04  and  the  per  cent  of  nitrogen 
determined  by  comparison  of  the  gas  given  off  with  a  standard 
volume.    The  acid  used  shall  be  chemically  pure  sulphuric  acid 
containing  94  to  96  per  cent  H2S04. 

The  nitrometer  is  standardized  by  preparation  of  a  calcu- 


SERVICE  TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 


197 


lated  standard  volume  of  dry  air  at  a  temperature  of  20°  C.  and 
760  millimeters  pressure  at  20°  C.  in  the  comparison  tube. 
When  pure  potassium  nitrate  is  tested  with  the  standard  sul- 
phuric acid  against  such  comparison  tube,  the  nitrogen  figure 
should  invariably  be  13.85  per  cent. 

(e)  Ash  and  organic  residue. — Ash  will  be  determined  by 
decomposing  the  nitrocellulose  with  nitric  acid,  igniting  and 
weighing  the  residue.  The  per  cent  of  organic  residue  will  be 
obtained  by  dissolving  1  gram  of  nitrocellulose  in  pure  acetone, 
filtering  by  decantation,  and,  finally,  on  an  asbestos  filter, 
drying  and  then  determining  the  loss  by  ignition. 

(/)  Insoluble  nitrocellulose. — The  amount  of  insoluble  nitro- 
cellulose will  be  determined  by  soaking  1  gram  of  the  dry  sample 
over  night  in  95  per  cent  alcohol.  On  the  following  morning 
the  mixture  will  be  brought  to  15.5°  C.  and  a  sufficient  amount 
of  ethyl  ether  at  the  same  temperature  added  to  make  the 
mixture  of  ether  and  alcohol  2  to  1  by  volume ;  the  mixture  is  to 
be  kept  at  15.5°  C.  for  one  hour.  The  insoluble  nitrocellulose  is 
then  to  be  filtered  off  and  weighed,  a  correction  for  the  ash  and 
organic  material  insoluble  in  acetone  being  made. 

When  the  amounts  of  insoluble  nitrocellulose  and  organic 
residue  are  very  small,  comparative  volumetric  readings  may 
be  made  in  long  tubes,  allowing  the  insoluble  material  to  settle 
after  regular  treatment  for  solution  in  the  solvents.  The  lower 
portions  of  these  tubes  are  constricted  to  one-half  inch  in 
diameter,  cylindrical  shape,  and  graduated  by  direct  weighing 
of  residue. 

(g)  Solubility. — The  amount  of  soluble  nitrocellulose  will  be 
found  by  subtracting  the  sum  of  the  ash,  organic  residue,  and 
insoluble  nitrocellulose  from  100  per  cent. 

(h)  Acceptance. — Lots  of  nitrocellulose  which,  after  chemical 
examination,  have  been  found  satisfactory  shall  be  provisionally 
accepted,  subject  to  the  powder  made  therefrom  successfully 
passing  the  specified  ballistic  and  chemical  tests. 


198  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


4.  Smokeless  Powder  Manufacturing  Processes. 

(a)  Quality.— 

(1)  Finished  smokeless  powder  shall  be  a  uniform  ether- 
alcohol  colloid  of  nitrocellulose  of  standard  quality.     No  sub- 
stance whatever,  except  as  herein  specified,  and  in  the  manner 
and   at  the  time    specified,    shall    be    incorporated    into    the 
powder   or  its   component  parts  during  manufacture,  storage, 
or  use. 

(2)  The  powder  shall  be  granulated,  except  when  otherwise 
permitted,  into  cylindrical  grains  with  seven  longitudinal  per- 
forations— one  in  the  center  of  the  grain  and  six  at  the  vertices 
of  a  hexagon — so  placed  as  to  make  the  outer  and  inner  web 
thicknesses  equal,  within  the  limits  hereinafter  specified.     The 
grains  shall  be  carefully  cut  and  thoroughly  sorted,  so  as  to 
remove  cracked,  distorted,  or  spotted  grains,  lumps,  uncolloided 
material,  air  cavities,  butt  ends,  and  long  grains.     Any  grains 
developing  marked  discoloration  before  going  to  the  dry  houses 
shall  be  removed. 

(3)  The  total  percentage  of  volatiles  contained  shall  not  be 
greater  than  the  limits  shown  by  the  "  Curve  of  Volatiles/' 
"  dry  house  "  and  "  packed  "  condition,  forming  part  of  the 
specifications. 

(4)  The  powder  shall  have  physical  toughness  sufficient  to 
pass  the  prescribed  test. 

(5)  It  shall  pass  the  65.5°  C.  "  surveillance  "  test  prescribed 
for  its  particular  web  thickness. 

(6)  It  shall  give  a  "German"  test  at  135°  C.,  with  litmus 
paper,  of  at  least  one  hour -and  fifteen  minutes  and  shall  not 
explode  in  less  than  five  hours. 

(7)  The  loss  of  weight  in  the  115°  C.  Ordnance  Department 
test  must  not  exceed  the  limit  shown  by  the  curve  forming  a 
part  of  these  specifications. 

(8)  The  powder  shall  be  stable  under  any  or  all  of  the  above 
tests.     It  must  not  show,  by  chemical  analysis  or  test,  the 


SERVICE  TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  199 

presence  of  any  unauthorized  ingredients,  or  that  the  nitro- 
cellulose and  other  material  employed  in  the  manufacture  did 
not  conform  to  the  specifications. 

•(9)  It  shall  successfully  pass  the  ballistic  requirements 
specified. 

(b)  Dehydrating. — Nitrocellulose  which  has  been  accepted 
for  the  manufacture  of  powder  shall  be  dehydrated  with  standard 
alcohol  to  thoroughly  remove  water,  and  the  excess  alcohol 
shall  be  removed  by  pressure,  leaving  no  more  alcohol  than 
that  required  for  mixing.     At  least  1  pound  of  alcohol  shall 
be  used  for  each  pound  of  dry  nitrocellulose  in  each  pressing. 

(c)  Mixing. — After  dehydrating,  the  blocks  of  nitrocellulose 
shall  be  broken  up,  placed  in  suitable  mechanical  mixers,  and 
the  necessary  amount  of  standard  ether  added.    The  amount 
of  ether  is  determined  by  the  climatic  conditions,  the  number 
and  character  of  operations  after  mixing,  and  the  caliber  of  the 
powder  being  made ;  it  shall  not  be  less  than  64  per  cent  of  the 
total  amount  of  solvent  used  in  the  mixing.    An  amount  of 
diphenylamine,  of  approved  purity,  equal  in  weight  to  0.4  per 
cent  of  the    weight    of  the  dry  nitrocellulose   in   the  mixer 
charge,  shall  be  dissolved  in  the  ether  and  added  to  the  charge 
with  it. 

The  mixing  shall  be  continued  until  the  solvent  is  uniformly 
distributed  throughout  the  mass.  Clean  scrap  may  be  reworked 
in  the  mixers,  but  all  dirty  scrap  and  foreign  material  must  be 
removed. 

The  manufacturer  is  enjoined  as  to  the  necessity  for  taking 
measures  to  insure  that  the  diphenylamine  shall  be  thoroughly 
incorporated  in  each  mixer  charge.  The  following  test  is  sug- 
gested : 

From  each  mixer  charge  at  the  end  of  the  process  place  a  pinch  of 
the  colloid  in  a  test-tube  containing  ether-alcohol,  shake  until  dissolved, 
then  add  an  equal  quantity  of  reagent  consisting  of  a  water  solution  of 
5  per  cent  potassium  chromate  and  25  per  cent  strong  sulphuric  acid. 
Diphenylamine  present  to  the  extent  of  0.4  per  cent  by  weight  of  dry 
nitrocellulose  will  give  a  deep  violet  color;  0.04  per  cent  will  give  a  pale 
green  color. 


200  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

(d)  Pressing. — The  material  coming  from  the  mixers  shall 
be  strained  for  the  removal  of  lumps  before  going  through  the 
graining  press.     The  colloid  shall  be  pressed  through  dies  with 
such  uniformity  as  will  produce  the  standard  grain  required. 
The  area  of  the  screen  holes  of  the  die  must  be  at  least  one  and 
one-quarter  times  the  area  of  the  cross-section  of  the  die.    One 
die,  or  dies  of  exactly  the  same  dimensions,  must  be  used  in 
graining  any  lot  of  powder. 

(e)  Drying. — Smokeless  powder  shall  be  dried  at  tempera- 
tures not  exceeding  44°  C.  until  the  solvent  has  been  removed 
to  within  the  limits  fixed  by  the  curve  of  volatiles.    In  all  the 
drying  operations  due  care  is  to  be  taken  to  prevent  deforming 
the  grains.     Drying  shall  be  carried  out  in  "  solvent  recovery  " 
or  "  dry  "  houses,  or  in  both,  which  are  operated  on  the  "  close- 
circuit  "  or  "  dead-air  "  systems,  with  as  little  circulation  of  air 
through   or  around   the   powder  as    is   consistent    with    the 
maintenance    of    even   temperatures  throughout  the  powder; 
in    any  case,  the  quantity  of  new  air   admitted  shall  be  a 
minimum. 

A  recording  .thermometer  shall  be  suitably  located  in  each 
dryhouse.  At  least  two  maximum  and  minimum  thermometers 
shall  be  placed  in  the  powder  in  the  hottest  parts  of  each  dry 
house  and  daily  temperature  records  shall  be  kept. 

(/)  Blending. — When  powder  is  removed  from  the  dryhouse 
it  shall  be  exposed  to  atmospheric  conditions  for  from  twenty- 
four  to  sixty  hours,  in  order  that  the  absorbed  moisture  shall 
be  as  nearly  a  fixed  quantity  as  possible.  The  blending 
shall  be  uniformly  done  in  lots  of  such  size  as  may  be 
prescribed. 

(g)  Packing. — After  blending,  powder  shall  be  packed  in  air- 
tight boxes  of  standard  type,  which  shall  be  marked  and  sten- 
ciled as  required. 

Powder,  or  its  standard  ingredients,  shall  at  all  times  be 
protected  from  the  action  of  direct  sunlight  and  acid  fumes* 


SERVICE    TESTS   OF  EXPLOSIVES. 


201 


5.  Tests  of  Smokeless  Powder. 

(a)  Sampling. — After  a  lot  of  powder  is  blended,  packed, 
and  submitted  for  acceptance,  a  firing  sample  of  the  required 
weight  and  five  chemical  samples  shall  be  selected  by  the  in- 
spector and  shall  be  shipped  to  the  point  designated  for  chemical 
and  ballistic  tests.     For  powders  granulated  for  5-inch  or  larger 
guns  each  chemical  sample  shall  fill  a  16-ounce  tight  glass- 
stoppered  bottle;   for  other  powders,  each  sample  shall  fill  an 
8-ounce  bottle.    The  chemical  and  ballistic  samples  selected 
must  not  be  opened  until  they  have  arrived  at  the  point  or 
points  designated  for  test. 

With  every  lot  of  powder  submitted  for  acceptance  the  con- 
tractor shall  furnish,  in  quadruplicate,  on  official  blanks,  a 
descriptive  sheet  giving  a  complete  history  of  its  manufacture. 

On  receipt  of  the  five  chemical  samples  of  a  lot,  a  blend  is 
made  in  a  tight  bottle  of  equal  portions  of  each  sample,  which 
blend  will  be  used  in  making  all  stability  tests  other  than  the 
"  German  "  test.  Each  of  the  five  portions  for  the  "  German  " 
test  must  represent  different  samples;  measurements,  physical 
tests,  and  chemical  tests  other  than  stability  tests  will  be  made 
from  portions  taken  at  random  from  the  various  samples. 

(b)  Measurements. — Thirty  grains  will  be  selected  at  ran- 
dom and  measured  for  length,  diameter,  perforation,  and  inner 
and  outer  wall  thicknesses. 

The  outside  diameter  (D)  of  the  grain  shall  be  about  ten 
times  the  diameter  (d)  of  the  perforations,  and  the  length  (L) 
about  2.25  times  the  outside  diameter.  The  dimensions  (L  arid 
D)  of  at  least  the  30  grains  specified  must  comply  with  the 
requirements  for  uniformity  as  follows  : 


Dimensions. 

Mean  Variation  of  Individual  Dimen- 
sions    from      Mean      Dimensions, 
Expressed    in    Per    cent   of   Mean 
Dimensions. 

Permitted. 

Desired  Less  than 

L 
D 

5.0 
2.5 

1.0 
0.5 

202  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Six  measurements  of  the  outside  web  thickness  (Wo)  and  of 
the  inside  web  thickness  (WO  will  be  made  from  the  six  outside 
holes,  for  each  of  the  30  grains,  and  the.  two  sets  of  180  measure- 
ments averaged  to  obtain  the  mean  outside  and  inside  webs. 
The  difference  between  these  means  shall  not  exceed  15  per 
cent  of  the  average  web  thickness. 

(c)  Physical  test.— Ten  normal  grains  will  be  taken  and  both 

ends  cut  off  at  right  angles  to  the  length  until 

These  pieces  will  be  accurately  measured  for  length,  and  then 
slowly  compressed  between  parallel  surfaces  until  the  first  crack 
appears.  The  pressure  is  then  removed  and  the  grain  again 
measured.  The  decrease  in  length  necessary  to  crack  the  grain 
is  calculated  to  per  cent  of  original  length.  The  average  com- 
pression must  not  be  below  35  per  cent.  In  case  of  failure  in 
this  test  20  more  grains  are  tested,  and  if  the  average  compres- 
sion of  the  total  30  grains  is  below  35  per  cent  the  powder  will 
be  rejected.  Grains  accidentally  abnormal  in  shape,  or  con- 
taining obvious  flaws,  will  not  be  used  for  this  test. 

(d)  Volatiles. — Slices  will  be  cut  from  at  least  five  average 
grains   for  the   samples   of  large-caliber  powders.     In  small- 
caliber  powder,  where  a  large  nurnber  of  grains  insure  a  proper 
average,  whole  grains  may  be  taken,  or  slices  may  be  cut  from 
a  number.     The  slices,  or  grains,  having  been  thoroughly  mixed, 
a  sample  of  approximately  1  gram  is  taken  and  accurately 
weighed. 

The  sample  is  to  be  dissolved  in  150  cubic  centimeters  of 
ether-alcohol  mixture  (2  to  1,  by  volume).  When  the  solution 
is  complete,  the  nitrocellulose  is  precipitated  by  the  gradual 
addition  of  a  suitable  amount  of  water  and  the  mixture  evap- 
orated to  dry  ness  on  a  steam  or  water  bath.  When  the  evap- 
oration is  apparently  complete,  the  precipitate  is  dried  for  one 
hour  at  95°  to  100° C., or  in  a  vacuum  drier  at  50° C.,  and  weighed. 
Correction  for  residue  in  water,  or  solvent  used,  having  been 
applied,  the  difference  between  the  weight  of  the  sample  and 
that  of  the  nitrocellulose  found  is  the  "  total  volatiles,  as  packed." 


SERVICE   TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  203 

To  obtain  the  amount  of  moisture,  a  sample  of  at  least  5 
whole  grains  of  not  less  than  20  grams  will  be  dried  in  a  vacuum 
dryer  at  50°  to  60°  C.  for  two  hours,  cooled  in  a  desiccator,  and 
the  resultant  loss  of  weight  determined  by  weighing.  This  loss 
will  be  considered  as  moisture,  and  the  difference  between  this 
figure  and  that  of  the  total  volatiles  by  precipitation  will  be 
considered  as  the  residual  solvent;  that  is,  this  treatment  will 
be  considered  as  that  required  to  convert  the  powder  from 
"  packed  "  to  "  dry  house  "  condition. 

The  "  total  volatiles  "  or  the  "  residual  solvent  "  must  not 
exceed  the  limits  defined  by  the  curve  of  volatiles,  for  "  packed  " 
and  "  dry  house  "  conditions,  respectively,  which  form  a  part 
of  these  specifications. 

(e)  German  test  at  135°  C. — This  test  will  be  made  on  five 
samples  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  for  nitrocellulose,  the  powder 
being  in  as  nearly  whole  grains  as  possible  consistent  with  the 
standard  weight  of  2.5  grams.  No  sample  shall  turn  the  litmus 
paper  completely  to  standard  red  in  less  than  one  hour  and 
forty-five  minutes,  nor  shall  any  sample  explode  in  less  than 
five  hours. 

(/)  Ordnance  Department  115°  C.  test. — Five  samples  will  be 
used,  each  consisting  of  not  less  than  10  grains  nor  less  than  2 
whole  grains.  Each  sample,  after  weighing,  will  be  placed  in 
a  watch  glass  or  open  dish  and  exposed  to  a  temperature  of 
115°  C.  ±0.5°  for  eight  hours  a  day  for  six  days.  The  oven  is 
brought  to  the  required  temperature  each  day  before  inserting 
the  samples,  and  at  the  end  of  the  eight-hour  period  the  samples 
are  removed  from  the  oven  and  allowed  to  stand  over  night. 

At  the  end  of  the  six-day  period  the  samples  are  allowed  to 
cool  in  a  desiccator,  after  which  they  are  weighed  again.  The 
total  loss  of  weight,  of  the  samples  must  not  exceed  the  limit 
shown  by  the  curve  forming  part  of  these  specifications. 

(g)  "  Surveillance  "  test  at  65.5°  C.— The  three  samples  re- 
quired for  test  shall  each  consist  of  from  15  to  20  grams  of 
powder  in  whole  grains,  the  lesser  weights  being  taken  for  the 
small-caliber  powders,  the  greater  for  the  large-caliber  powders. 


204  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

After  having  been  exposed  for  twenty-four  hours  at  21°  C.,  each 
sample  is  to  be  placed  in  an  8-ounce  salt-mouth  glass-stoppered 
bottle,  made  tight  by  carefully  grinding  the  stopper.  These 
bottles  will  be  placed  in  a  constant-temperature  magazine  at 
65.5°  C.  in  which  the  permissible  fluctuation  of  temperature  is 
±2°  C.  The  end  of  the  test  is  the  first  appearance  of  red  fumes 
in  the  bottle,  and  no  sample  shall  show  these  fumes  in  less  time 
than  the  limit  shown  by  the  surveillance  curve. 

(h)  Organic  residue  will  not  be  regularly  determined,  but  if 
any  doubt  exists  as  to  the  quality  of  any  of  the  materials  enter- 
ing into  the  composition  of  the  powder  a  1-gram  sample  will  be 
prepared  by  grinding  and  sifting,  and  tested  for  residue  as  for 
nitrocellulose. 

(i)  Ash. — A  sample  of  average  slices  will  be  tested  for  ash 
in  the  manner  prescribed  for  nitrocellulose. 

(j)  Solubility. — A  sample  will  be  prepared  by  rolling  and 
powdering  slices  from  at  least  20  powder  grains  and  sifting 
through  an  80-mesh  sieve.  A  portion  of  about  1  gram  is  weighed 
out  and  the  insoluble  material  determined,  as  in  the  test  of 
nitrocellulose. 

The  sum  of  the  per  cents  of  volatiles,  insoluble  nitrocellulose, 
ash,  and  organic  residue  found  present  will  be  subtracted  from 
100  and  the  remainder  will  be  considered  the  per  cent  of  soluble 
nitrocellulose.  (This  test  will  be  made  without  awaiting  the 
results  of  the  "  surveillance  test,"  provided  the  lot  has  passed 
all  the  other  tests  prescribed  above.) 

(k)  Ballistic  tests.— 

(1)  The  powder  must  give  the  service  velocity  with  a  max- 
imum pressure  and  a  weight  of  charge  within  the  limits  given 
in  the  table  forming  part   of   these   specifications,  pages  205, 
206. 

(2)  When  the   measured   velocities   and   pressures   for  all 
rounds  fired  are  plotted  to  scale,  as  a  function  of  the  weight 
of  charge,  the  resulting  curves  must  be  reasonably  smooth. 

(3)  For  three  rounds,  fired  under  standard  conditions,  with 
the  charge  required  to  give  the  service  velocity,  the  difference 


SERVICE   TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 


205 


i 


rH  <N        rH   rH   rH   <M   <M   <N  rH 


HOC       rnH<        •      •  Hfi-'N'H'*  HN 


ft 


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.^rH  COCOCOCOCOCOCO  rHrH(N(MC^(M  rH 


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Weight  of 
Projectile. 


CV  00     *O     CO  CO  O  O  O  »O  iO  O  O  O  O  »O 

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and 
1891 


HOWITZERS. 
3-inch  howitzer,  model  of  190 
3.8-inch  howitzer,  model  of  19 
4.7-inch  howitzer,  model  of  19 
4.7-inch  howitzer,  model  of  19 
6-inch  howitzer,  models  of  190 
7-inch  siege  howitzer,  models 


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206 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


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SERWCE   TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  207 

between  any  velocity  and  the  mean  velocity  for  the  group  must 
not  exceed  ±  1  per  cent  of  the  mean  velocity,  and  similarly,  the 
difference  in  pressure  must  not  exceed  ±5  per  cent  of  the  mean 
pressure.  For  calibers  less  than  3  inches  the  above-mentioned 
allowed  variations  will  be  increased  25  per  cent. 

(4)  The  pressure  curve  must  not  show  any  "  critical  "  point, 
as  evidenced  by  a  marked  and  abrupt  change  in  the  law  of 
development  of  pressure  as  a  function  of  the  weight  of  charge. 

(5)  If  considered  desirable,  one  or  more  rounds  may  be  fired 
with  weight  of  charge  5  per  cent  greater  than  that  required  to 
give  the  service  velocity.     Under  these  conditions  no  dangerous 
pressure  must  be  shown. 

Special  Specifications  and  Tests  for  Smokeless  Powder 
for  Small  Arms. 

GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS. 

The  powder  must  be  uniform  in  quality,  free  from  dust  and 
other  foreign  substances. 

It  must  be  practically  smokeless.  The  amount  of  unburned 
powder  in  firing  full  charges  must  not  exceed  1.25  per  cent. 

It  must  not  unduly  corrode  or  erode  the  barrel  or  corrode 
the  cartridge  case.  Under  this  requirement  the  erosion  of  the 
bores  of  the  U.  S.  magazine  rifles,  models  of  1898  and  1903, 
after  firing  5,000  rounds  with  powder  intended  for  those  arms 
must  not  materially  exceed  that  exhibited  by  rifle  barrels  Nos. 
21244  and  175968  of  those  models,  respectively,  each  of  which 
has  been  fired  5,000  rounds  and  will  be  retained  at  Frankford 
Arsenal  as  a  present  standard  of  reference. 

It  must  not  require  an  unduly  strong  primer  for  ignition. 

It  must  not  leave  a  hard  adherent  residue  in  the  bore,  es- 
pecially after  rapid  firing. 

It  must  not  be  sensitive  to  friction  or  shock. 

It  must  not  be  so  friable  as  to  endanger  breakage  of  grains 
in  transportation  incident  to  service. 

It  must  not  contain  ingredients  known  to  be  unsuited  to 
form  a  safe  and  reasonably  stable  compound. 


208  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

It  must  admit  of  satisfactory  machine  loading,  with  the  ma- 
chines in  use  or  that  can  be  readily  provided  at  the  Frankford 
Arsenal. 

It  must  not  show  a  tendency  to  agglomeration  during 
storage.  Powder  which  may  be  found  defective  in  this  respect, 
and  which  has  not  already  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
cartridges,  will  be  returned  to  the  contractor  at  his  expense, 
and  deliveries  of  the  powder  under  contract  will  be  suspended. 

Other  things  being  equal,  that  powder  which  produces  the 
least  heating  of  the  barrel  will  be  preferred. 

The  powder  for  ball  cartridges  shall  be  subject  to  proof 
firing  in  the  service  arm  for  which  intended,  and  in  the  pressure 
gauge  for  that  arm  used  at  the  Frankford  Arsenal,  with  the 
service  cartridge  case  and  bullet. 

The  weight  of  the  powder  charge  is  not  prescribed,  but  will 
be  governed  by  the  ballistic  requirements. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  charge  shall  fill  the  case  to  the  shoulder. 
When  machine  loaded  it  must  not  fill  the  case  to  within  0.4-inch 
from  the  mouth. 

Other  powders  must  fulfill  the  general  requirements  for  all 
smokeless  powders  and  be  suitable  to  the  arm  and  for  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  intended. 

The  methods  of  manufacture  and  the  tests  of  raw  material 
are  essentially  the  same  as  those  for  cannon  powders. 

Test. — To  test  finished  nitroglycerin  powders  for  stability  a 
sample  of  the  powder  is  pulverized  and  after  being  passed 
though  a  40-mesh  sieve  is  dried  for  48  hours  at  43°  C.  ±3°  C., 
and  then  placed  in  a  moist  atmosphere  for  several  hours  or 
until  about  1.5  per  cent  of  moisture  is  absorbed. 

The  test  is  then  continued  as  in  the  potassium  iodide  starch 
paper  test  for  nitrocellulose.  The  powder  must  give  a  test  of 
not  less  than  40  minutes. 

Cellulose  prepared  for  nitrating. — Bleached  cellulose,  the  ma- 
terial to  be  used,  will  be  obtained  by  purifying  unspun  cotton 
wastes  and  thoroughly  washing  to  remove  purifying  materials 
or  salts;  containing  not  more  than  0.7  per  cent  extractive 
matter;  not  more  than  1.25  per  cent  ash;  of  uniform  character, 


SERVICE  TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  209 

clean  and  free  from  such  lumps  as  will  prevent  uniform  nitra- 
tion. 

POWDER  FOR  BALL  CARTRIDGES  FOR  SMALL-ARMS. 

The  finished  powder  shall  be  a  uniform  ether  alcohol  colloid 
of  nitrocellulose  of  standard  quality. 

Granulation. — The  grain,  except  when  otherwise  permitted, 
shall  be  cylindrical  in  shape  with  one  axial  perforation. 

The  length  of  the  dry  grain  must  be  about  2.5  times  the 
outside  diameter.  No  limits  in  the  variation  of  web  thickness 
are  prescribed;  the  other  requirements  are  expected  to  ensure 
a  sufficient  degree  of  uniformity. 

Volatiles. — The  powder,  in  the  ''  packed  "  conditions,  shall 
contain  a  total  percentage  of  volatiles  to  be  determined  by  the 
water  precipitation  method,  not  greater  than  3.15  per  cent, 

Stability. — The  powder  shall  be  stable  under  any  one,  or  both 
of  the  following  tests,  when  conducted  in  the  manner  herein 
described,  viz.:  Potassium  iodide  starch  paper  test;  German 
135°  C.  test. 

It  must  not  show  by  chemical  analysis  or  test  the  presence  of 
any  unauthorized  ingredients,  or  that  the  nitrocellulose  and 
other  materials  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  the  powder 
did  not  conform  to  the  specifications. 

Sampling. — After  a  lot  of  powder  is  blended  and  packed,  a 
ten-pound  sample  is  selected  by  the  inspector,  by  taking  1  pound 
from  each  of  10  boxes  and  sent  to  Frankford  Arsenal  for  chemical 
and  ballistic  test. 

Total  volatiles. — Approximately  1  gram  is  accurately  weighed 
out.  This  sample  is  dissolved  in  150  c.c.  ether-alcohol  mixture 
(2  to  1  by  volume).  When  solution  is  complete,  the  nitro- 
cellulose is  precipitated  by  the  gradual  addition  of  a  suitable 
amount  of  water.  The  mixture  is  then  evaporated  to  dryness 
on  a  steam  or  water  bath.  When  evaporation  is  apparently 
complete,  the  precipitate  is  dried  for  one  hour  at  95°  to  100°  C., 
or  in  a  vacuum  drier  at  50°  C.,  and  then  weighed.  Correction 
is  made  for  residue  in  water,  or  solvent  used.  The  difference 
between  weight  taken  and  nitrocellulose  found  is  total  volatiles. 

Heat  test — Potassium  iodide  starch-paper  test. — A  sample  is 


210  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

dried  forty-eight  hours  at  43°  C.  ±3°.  The  powder  is  then 
allowed  to  stand  over  night,  or  until  the  proper  amount  of 
moisture  is  obtained,  and  the  heat  test  proceeded  with  as  for 
nitrocellulose,  except  that  no  moisture  series  is  taken.  Not  less 
than  ten  samples  will  be  used,  and  each  sample  shall  give  not 
less  than  forty  minutes. 

German  test  at  135°  C. — This  test  is  made  on  five  samples  in 
exactly  the  same  way  as  for  nitrocellulose,  the  powder  being  in 
as  nearly  whole  grains  as  possible,  consistent  with  the  standard 
weight  of  2.5  grams.  No  sample  shall  turn  the  litmus  paper 
completely  red  to  standard  in  less  than  one  hour  and  fifteen 
minutes;  nor  any  sample  explode  in  less  than  five  minutes. 

Organic  residue. — This  will  not  be  regularly  determined.  If 
any  doubt  of  the  quality  of  the  ingredients  exists  the  following 
method  will  be  used :  A  sample  of  1  gram  is  proceeded  with  as 
in  the  test  of  nitrocellulose. 

Insoluble  nitrocellulose. — A  portion  of  about  1  gram  is  weighed 
out  for  treatment  as  in  the  determination  of  insoluble  nitro- 
cellulose in  nitrocellulose. 

Ash. — An  average  sample  is  treated  in  the  manner  described 
for  ash  in  nitrocellulose. 

Soluble  nitrocellulose. — The  sum  of  the  per  cent  of  volatiles, 
insoluble  nitrocellulose,  organic  residue,  and  ash  subtracted  from 
100,  gives  the  per  cent  of  soluble  nitrocellulose. 

After  graining,  the  powder  is  dried  at  a  temperature  not 
exceeding  110°  F.  until  the  amount  of  solvent  is  less  than  2.75 
per  cent.  Temperature  records  will  be  kept  of  the  heated  air, 
both  in  contact  with  powder  and  before  it  enters  the  dry  houses, 
the  thermometers  in  powder  bins  being  maximum  and  minn 
mum  style  and  placed  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  house,  at  least 
two  such  being  used  for  each  house.  Each  dry  house  shall  be 
provided  with  a  recording  thermometer  suitably  located. 

Blending  and  packing. — The  moisture  and  volatiles  of  the 
powder  will  be  determined  in  the  dry-house  condition  and  also 
in  the  packed  condition,  and  the  time  of  exposure  to  atmos- 
pheric condition,  together  with  the  temperature  and  humidity, 
recorded.  The  amount  of  absorbed  moisture  shall  be  as  nearly 
a  fixed  quantity  as  possible. 


SERVICE   TESTS  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 


211 


The  blending  shall  be  uniformly  done  in  lots  of  such  size  as 
may  be  prescribed. 

The  powder  shall  be  packed  in  air-tight  boxes  of  standard 
type  and  the  contents  wi  h  ballistic  and  other  data  stenciled 
thereon.  Powder,  or  the  standard  ingredients  of  powder,  shall 
at  all  times  be  protected  from  the  action  of  direct  sunlight  and 
acid  fumes. 

VELOCITY  AND  PRESSURE  TESTS. 

The  powder  will  be  taken  as  received,  and  under  the  ordi- 
nary conditions  governing  the  loading  of  a  service  powder  will 
be  tested,  the  powder  charges  being  separately  weighed  and 
hand-loaded. 


.30-caliber. 

.30-caliber. 

.38-caliber. 

Mean  velocity  must  not  be  less  than  . 
Mean  variation  in  velocity  must    not 

Model  of  1898. 
1,966  ft.  per  sec. 

8  feet  per  sec 

Model  of  1906. 
2,640  ft.  per  sec. 

18  feet  per  sec. 

775  ft.  per  sec. 
15  ft.  per  sec. 

Extreme  variation   in  velocity  must 
not  exceed  
Maximum  pressure  must  not  exceed  .  . 

30  feet  per  ace. 
40,000  poun   s 

40  feet  per  sec. 
50,000  pounds 

70  ft.  per  'sec. 
15,000  pounds 

Velocities  will  be  measured  at  53  feet  from  the  muzzle  for 
the  model  of  1898  .30  caliber  cartridges,  78  feet  for  the  model  of 
1906  .30  caliber  cartridges,  and  25  feet  for  the  caliber  .38  re- 
volver cartridges. 

The  velocity  proof  of  each  lot  to  comprise  forty  consecutive 
rounds. 

The  proof  for  pressure  to  comprise  ten  consecutive  rounds 
fired  from  the  pressure  barrel. 

LOADING  TEST. 

Fifty  cartridges  will  be  loaded  by  the  machines  in  use  and 
tested,  40  being  fired  for  velocity  and  10  for  pressures.  The 
weights  of  these  charges  will  be  measured  before  the  bullets  are 
assembled. 


.30-caliber. 

.30-caliber. 

.38-caliber. 

Mean  variation  in  velocity  must  not 

Model  of  1898. 
10  feet  per  sec. 

Model  of  1906. 
12  feet  per  sec. 

15  feet  per  sec. 

Extreme  variation  in  velocity  must 

40  feet  per  sec. 

50  feet  per  sec. 

70  feet  per  sec. 

Maximum  pressure  must  not  exceed  .  . 
Variation  in  weight  of  charge  must 
not  exceed  

41,000  pounds 
.9  grain  

50,500  pounds 
.9  grain  

16,000  pounds 
0.25  grain  .... 

VIII. 
STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 

Magazines.— Wide  variety  of  practice  exists  among  the 
different  countries  in  building  magazines.  In  Austria-Hungary 
light  wooden  structures  are  provided  for  explosives,  so  that  the 
debris,  in  case  of  explosion,  would  be  projected  short  distances. 
The  English  laws  in  reference  to  explosives  are  most  elaborate 
and  rigid;  the  details  of  magazines,  the  character  of  explo- 
sives permitted  for  sale  and  the  conditions  of  storage  and 
transportation  are  carefully  prescribed  therein.  These  stringent 
regulations,  taken  in  connection  with  those  equally  stringent  in 
reference  to  the  manufacture  and  tests  of  all  explosives, 
make  an  accidental  explosion  of  explosives  in  transit  or  stor- 
age an  exceedingly  rare  occurrence  in  England. 

Explosions  may  result  from  lightning  or  from  incendiarism; 
to  guard  against  such  contingencies  the  buildings  in  which 
explosives  are  stored  should  be  well  protected  by  lightning- 
conductors  and  be  made  fire-proof.  Some  constructions  have 
been  made  in  which  the  roof  and  sides  are  of  corrugated  sheet 
iron;  the  roof- trusses  of  iron  resting  on  brick  piers;  the  floor 
of  asphalt  free  of  grit. 

All  doors  should  be  double  with  a  vestibule  between;  they 
should  be  strong,  fire-proof,  and  have  strong,  treble-bolt  locks. 

According  to  Guttmann,  the  best  method  of  protecting 
explosives  from  lightning  is  to  build  the  magazine  entirely  of 
metal,  extending  the  sides  down  to  moist  soil  or  connecting 
them  well  with  it  in  several  places. 

212 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  213 

A  method  suggested  by  Professor  Oliver  Lodge  is  considered 
efficient.  This  consists  in  covering  the  building  completely 
with  strong,  durable  iron  wire  netting,  or  running  large  size 
iron  wires  along  all  ridges  and  edges,  with  groups  of  wires 
radiating  from  each  corner,  the  whole  system  being  connected 
well  with  moist  earth. 

All  storage-magazines  should  have  protecting  mounds  or 
traverses  of  earth  thrown  up  around  them  when  located  near 
other  buildings  or  property  exposed  to  destruction  in  case  of 
explosion.  When  this  is  not  possible,  near-by  buildings  may 
be  protected  by  planting  thickly  a  deep  row  of  trees  about 
the  magazine.  As  a  rule,  200  yards  may  be  regarded  as  a 
reasonably  safe  distance  from  a  large  storage-magazine. 

Storage-magazines  should  not  be  placed  within  closed  works 
if  it  is  possible  to  avoid  doing  so. 

Not  more  than  400  tons  of  black  or  brown  gunpowder  or 
100  tons  of  nitrocellulose  gunpowder  should  be  stored  in  one 
magazine. 

The  English  regulations  prescribe  that  magazines  for  the 
storage  of  nitro-powders  or  high  explosives  shall  be  made  of 
as  light  a  form  of  construction  as  possible,  compatible  with 
sufficient  strength  for  stability,  resistance  to  weather,  and 
protection  against  unlawful  entry.  The  material  used  must  not 
be  of  an  inflammable  nature.  The  temperature  of  magazines 
should  be  maintained  at  about  70°  F.;  if  it  is  permitted  to 
rise  above  100°  F.  for  any  length  of  time  the  composition  and 
stability  of  nitrocellulose  powders  may  be  affected;  if  it  rises 
above  122°  F.  (50°  C.),  even  for  a  few  minutes,  explosives  stored 
therein  should  be  examined  for  stability. 

Service-magazines  in  coast  forts  are  so  placed  as  to  be  pro- 
tected from  projectiles  of  all  kinds.  The  conditions  as  to 
temperature  and  ventilation  prescribed  for  storage-magaziner 
should  obtain  for  service-magazines. 

In  so  far  as  possible  no  iron  fixtures,  tools,  or  appliances 
should  be  used  inside  of  a  magazine. 

Magazines  may  be  heated  by  steam  at  a  pressure  not  exceed- 


214  NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

ing  15  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  or  by  hot  water;  the  heating  pipes 
may  be  of  iron,  but  should  be  placed  well  above  the  floor,  not 
lower  than  6  feet  6  inches.  They  need  not  be  galvanized  nor 
otherwise  coated,  nor  boxed  in  with  wood;  but  they  should 
be  detached  and  not  less  than  6  inches  from  any  woodwork. 
They  should  be  frequently  wiped  clean  of  all  dust. 

All  doors  and  windows  should  be  made  to  open  outwards. 
They  should  be  covered  with  copper  sheeting.  All  fixtures  and 
nails  should  be  of  copper. 

Following,  in  a  general  way,  the  English  regulations,  explo- 
sives may  be  classified,  for  purposes  of  storage,  into  "Groups  " 
and  "Divisions,"  as  follows: — 


Group  I.     Stored  in  Magazines. 

Explosives  which  must  be  placed  in  a  magazine,  each  divi- 
sion of  the  group  requiring  a  separate  compartment  in  which 
"magazine  conditions  "  must  be  observed,  except  that  divisions 
a  and  e  may  be  placed  in  the  same  compartment,  and  c,  d,  and  e 
need  not  be  under  magazine  conditions. 

Divisions. 

a.  Nitrocellulose  gunpowder  and  black  and  brown  gunpowder, 
in  bulk  or  made  up  in  cartridges  for  large-caliber  guns. 
Quick  match. 
6.  Dry  guncotton. 
Dynamite. 
Explosive  gelatin. 

c.  Wet  guncotton. 

Picric  acid  and  its  service  explosive  derivatives. 

d.  Rapid-fire  fixed  ammunition  for  guns  of  3-inch  caliber  and 

less. 

e.  Rapid-fire  ammunition  for  the  guns  above  3-inch  caliber, 

when  the  powder  is  in  metallic  cases,  or  in  metal-lined 
boxes. 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  215 

Group  II. 

Explosives  which  must  be  stored  in  a  separate  chamber  of 
a  magazine,  or  in  a  separate  storeroom  or  building. 

Divisions. 

a.  Percussion-caps. 

Small-arm  ammunition. 

Priming  and  pyrotechnic  composition;    any  composition  in 
bulk  containing  either  mercury  fulminate  or  a  chlorate. 

Empty  capped  metallic  cases. 

Fuses  (time,  percussion,  or  combination) . 

Slow  match. 

Port  fires. 

Rockets. 

Primers  of  all  kinds  (friction,  percussion,  or  electric) . 
6.  Mines,  loaded. 

c.  Shells,  filled  and  fused. 
Shells,  filled  but  not  fused. 

d.  Detonating-caps. 

All  gunpowders,  dry  guncotton,  dynamite,  and  explosive 
gelatin  should  always  be  kept  in  magazines,  and  magazine 
conditions  strictly  enforced. 

Explosives  in  Group  II  should  not  be  placed  in  the  body 
of  magazines,  but  in  storerooms  or  chambers  apart,  and  need 
not  necessarily  be  under  magazine  conditions. 

Divisions  c,  d,  e,  Group  I,  may  be  stored  in  magazines  or 
as  prescribed  for  Group  II,  whichever  is  most  convenient. 

No  two  divisions  in  either  group  should  be  placed  in  the 
same  compartment  or  pile,  except  a  and  e,  Group  I,  may  be 
stored  in  the  same  magazine,  and  fuses  and  primers,  Group  II, 
may  be  kept  in  the  shell-room  of  a  service-magazine,  but  a  box 
or  cupboard  should  be  provided  to  contain  them  only,  and 
separately. 

A  magazine  or  storeroom  for  explosives  may  be  divided  into 
many  compartments  under  the  same  roof  for  the  different 


216  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

divisions  of  a  group,  provided  they  are  separated  by  substan- 
tial brick  or  other  walls,  without  openings  of  any  kind  between 
compartments. 

Explosives  of  the  same  division  may  be  stored  in  the  same 
compartment,  room,  or  magazine. 

Nitroglycerine,  dynamite,  explosive  gelatin,  and  nitrocellu- 
lose may  decompose  above  122°  F.  (50°  C),  and  magazines 
containing  them  should  never  have  a  higher  temperature. 
Nitro-powders  and  dry  guncotton  should  not  be  exposed  to  a 
higher  temperature  than  104°  F.  (40°  C)  for  any  length  of  time, 
or  repeatedly  for  short  times. 

All  explosives,  whether  stored  in  magazines  or  in  store- 
rooms, should  be  kept  under  the  following  conditions : 

Lighting  of  fires  near  by  should  be  strictly  prohibited. 

No  one  should  be  permitted  to  enter  rooms  contain- 
ing explosives  stored  in  bulk  with  matches  in  the  pockets 
or  about  the  person. 

Oiled  rags  or  waste,  or  any  substance  liable  to  spon- 
taneous combustion,  should  not  be  kept  in  or  near  rooms 
containing  explosives. 

Floors  and  platforms  should  be  kept  scrupulously 
clean. 

Benches,  shelves,  and  all  fittings  and  fixtures  inside 
of  storerooms  or  magazines  should  be  kept  free  of  grit 
and  dust. 

Magazines  containing  gunpowder  of  any  kind,  in  bulk  or 
in  cartridges  for  large-caliber  guns,  nitroglycerine,  dynamite, 
explosive  gelatin,  or  dry  guncotton  should  be  kept  under  the 
following  conditions,  in  addition  to  those  which  are  given  above : 

No  one  should  be  permitted  to  pass  through  the 
outer  door  of  the  building  except  those  duly  employed 
therein,  or  except  in  the  presence  of  the  officer  or  non- 
commissioned officer  in  whose  charge  the  explosives  are 
placed,  and  the  latter  should  be  responsible  that  all 
regulations  for  safety  are  strictly  observed.  To  this  end, 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  217 

the  officer  or  non-commissioned  officer  in  charge  should 
cause  all  persons  to  observe  the  following  regulations  as 
to  clothing: 

The  contents  of  all  pockets  will  be  examined  at  the 
outer  door  to  see  that  no  matches  or  other  easily  com- 
bustible substances  are  taken  within. 

As  soon  as  the  outer  door  is  entered  all  coats  will 
be  removed,  and  iron  or  steel  articles  removed  from 
trousers'  pockets.  The  shoes  will  be  carefully  wiped  on 
a  mat  placed  just  inside  the  outer  door,  and  magazine 
rubber  overshoes  placed  on  the  feet  of  each  person. 

When  powder  is  to  be  examined  in  a  magazine,  a  paulin, 
carefully  dusted  and  shaken,  should  be  spread  out  on  the  floor, 
and  when  the  work  is  completed  the  paulin  should  be  care- 
fully folded  so  as  to  contain  within  its  folds  all  powder-dust 
that  may  have  been  formed;  it  then  should  be  carried  from 
the  magazine  and  the  dust  shaken  into  water. 

Door-mats  should  be  shaken  outside  the  outer  door  after 
each  party  leaves  the  magazine. 

Packages  containing  explosives  in  Group  I  should  not  be 
opened  in  a  magazine  or  storeroom  containing  other  explosives 
of  that  group.  They  may  be  opened  in  an  anteroom  or  outside. 

Inventory  lists,  showing  the  contents  of  the  magazine  or 
storeroom,  should  be  posted  and  kept  entered  to  date. 

Keys  of  magazines  and  storerooms  containing  explosives 
should  be  carefully  tagged  and  kept  in  the  personal  possession 
of  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  explosives. 

When  explosives  are  received  the  original  packages  should 
be  carefully  examined  externally,  the  condition  of  the  package 
noted  to  see  if  it  has  on  its  surfaces  any  nails,  grit,  or  other 
objectionable  substance,  and,  if  there  be  any  such,  it  will  be 
carefully  removed.  If  the  package  is  broken  or  defective  it  will 
be  set  aside  to  be  opened  and  have  its  contents  examined.  All 
marks  on  each  separate  package  will  be  carefully  entered  in  the 
receipt  record  book. 


218  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Shelves  should  be  arranged  in  an  anteroom  to  receive 
"sample  bottles."  On  these  shelves  should  be  kept  a  sample 
of  each  "lot"  of  mtro-explosives  received  and  hi  store  in  the 
magazine.  These  bottles  should  be  inspected  and  the  contents 
tested  from  time  to  time. 

In  stacking  original  packages  they  should  be  so  placed  as 
to  exhibit  the  markings. 

When  original  packages  have  been  emptied,  the  markings 
should  be  scraped  off  before  they  are  sent  from  the  magazine 
or  storeroom. 

If  packages  are  used  for  explosives  a  second  time  they 
should  be  carefully  examined  to  see  that  all  former  markings 
are  obliterated,  and  that  they  are  strong  and  free  from  dust, 
dirt,  and  foreign  substances  of  all  kindsc 

In  the  magazine  and  storerooms,  packages  should  be 
stacked  in  tiers,  the  same  divisions  being  kept  together,  and 
in  each  division  each  lot  separate.  A  clear,  free  aisle  should 
be  left  about  each  lot,  and  in  each  tier  the  bottom  layer  should 
be  separated  from  the  floor  by  1-inch  battens,  and  each  layer 
from  the  one  below  by  1-inch  battens.  In  each  layer  an  inch 
space  will  be  left  between  adjacent  packages. 

Filled  cartridges  will  be  stacked  separately  from  powder  in 
bulk,  the  lots  being  carefully  separated  and  each  lot  together. 

When  rooms  or  buildings  other  than  magazines  are  used  for 
the  storage  of  explosives  they  should  be  thoroughly  repaired, 
washed,  dried,  swept,  and  cleared  of  all  movable  articles  before 
the  explosives  are  introduced. 

If  there  be  no  anteroom  or  vestibule  in  connection  with  a 
room  used  for  the  storage  of  explosives  one  should  be  impro- 
vised. If  it  is  not  practicable  to  observe  the  strict  regulations 
prescribed  for  permanent  magazines,  it  is  possible  always  to 
require  that  no  matches  or  other  easily  combustible  substance 
should  be  taken  within  the  building  or  room,  and  that  the  feet 
should  be  carefully  wiped  inside  the  outer  door. 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  219 


Ventilation  of  Magazines. 

It  is  very  important  that  magazines  containing  gunpowder 
should  be  carefully  ventilated.  If  powder  be  stored  in  damp 
magazines  in  cases  not  hermetically  sealed,  the  powder  absorbs 
moisture  and  its  ballistic  value  is  thereby  reduced. 

With  smokeless  powders  the  temperature  of  the  magazine 
has  also  a  special  influence  on  the  muzzle-velocity.  It  has  been 
found  by  trial  that  powders  tested  in  summer  and  used  in  target- 
practice  in  winter  give  velocities  lower  than  the  test  velocity, 
and  those  tested  in  winter  and  used  in  summer  give  higher 
velocities.  Corrections  allowing  for  difference  of  temperature  of 
powder  in  firing  have  been  ascertained  and  tabulated. 

Powders  should  be  tested  ballistically  at  a  standard  tem- 
perature, say  70°  F.,  and  the  temperatures  of  service-magazines 
should  be  such  as  to  permit  the  powder  to  be  delivered  to  the 
guns  at  as  near  this  temperature  as  possible.  If  this  is  not 
done  a  temperature  correction  must  be  introduced  in  applying 
range  tables. 

The  humidity  and  temperature  of  the  air  in  magazines  are, 
therefore,  a  matter  that  must  be  carefully  watched. 

It  is  especially  important  with  all  nitro-explosives  that 
there  should  be  free  circulation  of  air,  so  that  in  case  any  in- 
cipient decomposition  should  occur,  at  any  spot  in  any  package, 
the  fumes  would  be  directly  carried  off,  thereby  preventing  an 
accumulation  of  pressure  and  temperature,  and  also  favoring 
detection  of  the  decomposition  by  the  odor  of  the  escaping  gases. 

The  air  inside  of  magazines  should  be  kept  always  above 
its  dew-point  to  avoid  condensation.  The  problem  is,  there- 
fore, to  keep  the  air  circulating  and  to  maintain  it  at  a  tem- 
perature above  its  dew-point.  Three  methods  are  practised  to 
accomplish  this: 

1.  The  air  of  magazines  may  be  kept  above  the  dew- 
point  "by  providing  that  it  pass  over  heated  steam-  or 
hot-water  pipes,  using  a  fan  or  natural  circulation. 


220  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

2.  Air-shafts  with  revolving  hoods,  like  those  of  ships, 
may  be  arranged  to  face  the  wind  and  conduct  a  larga 
volume  of  air  through  all  rooms  and  galleries.    It  is 
found  that  a  shaft  about  20  inches  in  diameter  with  a 
well-flared  hood  will  work  efficiently  in  wind  above  5 
miles  per  hour.     With  little  wind  and  on  damp  days 
the  shafts  are  closed.    The  principle  applied  in  this  type 
is  that  the  volume  of  air  passing  through  must  be  suffi- 
cient to  give  its  temperature  to  the  surfaces  of  the  rooms 
and  galleries. 

3.  Some  magazines  are  not  provided  with  circulating 
air,  but  the  air  is  renewed  as  often  as  possible  by  opening 
all  doors  and  windows  to  the  outside  air  whenever  the 
conditions  of  temperature  and  dew-point  are  such  as  to 
make  the  air  let  in  a  drying  air. 

That  is,  it  is  necessary  to  establish  a  proper  dew-point 
inside  by  heat  or  otherwise,  and  to  cause  a  constant  circulation 
of  air  by  blowers,  or  to  make  use  intermittingly  of  the  natural 
weather  conditions  as  they  may  warrant. 

The  regulation  of  the  air  within  a  magazine  by  natural 
ventilation  is  effected  by  means  of  thermometers  inside  of 
magazines  and  wet-  and  dry-bulb  hygrometers  outside.  The 
wet-  and  dry-bulb  hygrometers  are  permanently  placed  outside 
the  magazine,  protected  from  the  direct  and  reflected  rays  of 
the  sun,  and  from  wind  and  rain.  Magazines  should  be  arranged 
with  a  window,  and  the  inside  thermometers  should  be  placed  at 
this  window,  so  that  the  inside  temperature  may  be  read  without 
opening  the  magazine.  Before  installing  the  inside  thermometer 
and  the  outside  hygrometer,  the  former  and  the  dry-bulb  ther- 
mometer of  the  latter  should  be  compared  as  to  their  readings 
under  the  same  conditions.  If  a  difference  of  reading  is  noted, 
this  should  be  entered  as  a  correction  on  both  instruments  and 
applied  in  all  computations. 

The  scale  of  the  dry-bulb  thermometer  of  the  hygrometer 
vvill  give  the  temperature  of  the  outside  air;  the  reading  of  the 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  221 

wet-bulb  thermometer  will  always  be  below  that  of  the  dry 
bulb,  and  the  amount  of  this  difference  is  the  argument  with 
which  the  humidity  tables  are  entered,  as  explained  below. 

In  using  the  wet-  and  dry-bulb  hygrometer  care  must  be 
exercised  to  have  the  well  of  the  wet-bulb  thermometer  always 
supplied  with  clean,  pure  water,  and  to  see  that  the  cloth  leading 
to  the  wet  bulb  is  wet  before  taking  any  reading. 

Readings  should  be  taken  in  the  morning  and  in  the  after- 
noon. These  readings  and  the  readings  of  the  inside  thermom- 
eters should  be  entered  in  a  record  book. 

The  dampness  of  magazines  results  from  two  causes: 

1.  The  condensation  of  moisture  from  the  air  of  the 
magazine  on  the  walls,  ceiling,  floors,  and  all  surfaces  in  the 
magazine.    Outside  air  at  a  given  temperature  and  relative 
humidity  admitted  to  a  magazine  at  a  lower  temperature 
may,  by  simply  having  its  temperature  lowered,  become 
supersaturated  and  deposit  moisture  by  condensation. 

2.  Percolation  of  water  through  the  ceiling  and  walls 
often  causes  dampness.    This  is  sometimes  seen  in  maga- 
zines, especially  when  Rosendale  cement  has  been  used  in 
the  construction,  and  when  sheet  lead  or  asphaltum  has 
not  been  placed  over  the  ceilings.    Such  water,  running 
into  the  magazine,  collects  in  small  pools  and  tends  to 
keep  the  air  constantly  saturated. 

After  magazines  have  been  opened  the  greatest  care  should 
be  exercised  to  see  that  they  are  closed  tightly  as  soon  as  the 
conditions  favorable  to  opening  cease  to  exist,  or  before  this 
limit  is  reached. 

Subject  to  the  above  conditions,  magazines  should  be 
opened  as  often  and  for  as  long  a  time  as  possible,  and  every 
means  used  to  get  a  good  circulation  of  air. 

Two  tables,  A  and  B,  are  provided  for  guidance  of  the  person 
in  charge  of  the  magazine.  Copies  of  these  tables  should  be 
attached  to  boards  hung  up  in  each  magazine.  Table  A  gives 
the  weight  of  water-vapor  per  cubic  foot  of  air  for  each  degree 


222  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

from  13°  to  100°  F.,  when  the  reading  of  the  wet  bulb  is  from 
0  to  14  degrees  lower  than  that  of  the  dry  bulb.  The  table  is 
not  carried  below  one  grain  of  water-vapor  per  cubic  foot  of  air, 
as  this  is  a  condition  seldom  met  with,  and  no  harm  would  be 
done  in  ventilating  a  magazine  at  any  temperature  likely  to 
occur  with  air  so  dry  as  this.  Table  B  gives  the  temperature 
which  must  be  shown  by  the  inside  thermometer  corresponding 
to  the  weight  of  water- vapor  per  cubic  foot,  before  the  magazine 
should  be  opened  for  ventilation.  The  table  gives  two  columns 
of  temperature:  column  I  gives  the  temperature  for  the  maga- 
zine at  or  above  which  ventilation  would  be  advantageous, 
namely,  that  at  which  the  water- vapor  that  is  in  the  air  outside 
would  cause  a  degree  of  humidity  of  70  per  cent  or  less  inside; 
column  II  gives  the  low  limit  of  temperature  for  the  magazine 
below  which  it  should  never  be  opened  for  ventilation,  as  its 
degree  of  humidity  would  become  85  per  cent  or  more,  and  if  it 
is  necessary  to  open  the  doors  for  any  purpose,  they  should  be 
closed  again  as  quickly  as  possible. 

Method  of  Reading  the  Tables. — To  work  these  tables  the 
readings  of  the  wet-  and  dry-bulb  thermometers  are  taken,  and 
from  Table  A  the  weight  of  water-vapor  per  cubic  foot  of  air  is 
ascertained.  The  temperature  is  then  taken  from  Table  B, 
which  is  opposite  that  weight  in  the  first  column. 

Application  of  Tables.  —  Should  the  thermometer  in  the 
magazine  read  at  or  above  the  temperature  taken  from  column 
I,  Table  B,  the  magazine  may  safely  and  advantageously  be 
opened  for  ventilation.  If  this  condition  is  not  fulfilled  for  a 
month,  the  first  opportunity  should  be  taken  for  ventilating 
the  magazine  when  the  thermometer  in  it  reads  between  the 
temperatures  taken  from  columns  I  and  II  for  the  weight  of 
water-vapor  per  cubic  foot  of  air  at  the  time;  but  the  tempera- 
ture taken  from  column  II  is  the  minimum  for  the  thermometer 
in  the  magazine  for  any  ventilation  to  be  attempted. 

Length  of  Time  to  be  Opened. — It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
conditions  favorable  for  ventilation  may  not  last  long,  especially 
when  the  temperature  inside  the  magazine  is  below  that  outside, 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 


223 


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224 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


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STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  225 

l>  CO  *O  Tfl  Ttf         CO  <M  <N  rH  O         O 


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226 


MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


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STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 


227 


TABLE  B. 

SHOWING  TEMPERATURE  AT  WHICH  MAGAZINES  MAY  BE  OPENED  FOB 
VENTILATION,  ACCORDING  TO  THE  MOISTURE  IN  THE  OUTSIDE  AIR 
ASCERTAINED  FROM  TABLE  A. 


Weight  of 
Water-vapor 
in  One  Cubic 
Foot    of   Air 
(Outside) 
Ascertained 
from  Table 
A. 

Temperature   of   Magazine 
When  It  May  be  Opened. 

Weight  of 
Water-vapor 
in  One  Cubic 
Foot    of   Air 
(Outside) 
Ascertained 
from   Table 
A. 

Temperature    of    Magazine 
When  it  May  be  Opened. 

I.  —  Minimum 
for  Good 
Ventilation. 

II.—  Limit 
below  which 
Ventilation  is 
Injurious. 

I.  —  Minimum 
for  Good 
Ventilation. 

II.  —  Limit 
below  which 
Ventilation  is 
Injurious. 

Grains.1 

Degrees  F. 

Degrees  F. 

Grains.1 

Degrees  F. 

Degrees  F. 

17.0 

107 

100 

5.2 

68 

62 

16.5 

106 

99 

5.0 

67 

61 

16.0 

105 

98 

4.9 

66 

60 

15.5 

104 

97 

4.7 

65 

59 

15.0 

103 

96 

4.6 

64 

58 

14.6 

102 

95 

4.4 

63 

57 

14.2 

101 

94 

4.3 

62 

56 

13.8 

100 

93 

4.1 

61 

55 

13.5 

99 

92 

4.0 

60 

54 

13.1 

98 

91 

3.8 

59 

53 

12.7 

97 

90 

3.7 

58 

52 

12.3 

96 

89 

3.5 

57 

51 

12.0 

95 

88 

3.4 

56 

50 

11.6 

94 

87 

3.3 

55 

49 

11.2 

93 

86 

3.2 

54 

48 

10.9 

92 

85 

3.1 

53 

47 

10.5 

91 

84 

3.0 

52 

46 

10.2 

90 

83 

2.9 

51 

45 

9.9 

89 

82 

2.8 

49 

44 

9.6 

88 

81 

2.7 

48 

43 

9.3 

87 

80 

2.6 

47 

42 

9.0 

86 

79 

2.5 

46 

41 

8.8 

85 

78 

2.4 

45 

40 

8.5 

84 

77 

2.3 

44 

39 

8.2 

83 

76 

2.2 

43 

38 

8.0 

82 

75 

2.1 

41 

37 

7.7 

80 

74 

2.0 

40 

36 

7.4 

79 

73 

1.9 

39 

35 

7.2 

78 

72 

1.8 

38 

34 

.  7.0 

77 

71 

1.7 

37 

33 

6.8 

76 

70 

1.6 

35 

32 

6.6 

75 

69 

1.5 

33 

31 

6.3 

74 

68 

1.4 

31 

30 

6.1 

73 

67 

1.3 

29 

28 

5.9 

72 

66 

1.2 

27 

26 

5.7 

71 

65 

1.1 

25 

24 

5.6 

70 

64 

1.0 

23 

21 

5.4 

69 

63 

1When  the  number  of  grains  of  water- vapor  per  cubic  foot  of  air  is  not 
found  exactly  in  the  column,  the  nearest  higher  figure  should  be  taken. 


228  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

as  the  latter  will  soon  fall  after  entering  the  magazine  when  the 
doors  are  opened,  and  the  relative  humidity  of  the  outside  air 
which  has  entered  the  magazine  be  increased.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances about  five  minutes  should  be  long  enough  for 
ventilating  a  small  magazine;  but  when  the  temperature  inside 
is  above  that  outside  the  magazine  and  other  conditions  are 
fulfilled,  there  is  no  limit  to  the  time  during  which  ventilation 
may  be  continued,  provided  outside  conditions  remain  favorable. 

Lighting. 

Magazines  of  permanent  seacoast  works  are  lighted,  as  a 
rule,  by  electricity.  When  lighted  by  lamps,  or  when  it  is  nec- 
essary to  take  a  lamp  into  a  magazine  or  a  room  containing 
explosives,  only  some  authorized  type  should  be  used. 

Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  protecting  electric  lamps 
from  being  broken,  and  the  insulation  of  all  parts  of  electric 
circuits  within  the  magazine,  or  the  room  containing  explosives 
should  be  of  the  most  approved  form. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  experiment  that  the  incandescent 
filament  of  the  electric  light  will  fire  gunpowder  dust  if  the 
globe  be  broken  in  an  atmosphere  containing  such  dust  in  sus- 
pension. It  is  considered  necessary,  therefore,  to  have  all 
incandescent  lamps  protected  by  a  strong  outer  glass  globe 
and  this  latter  by  a- strong,  copper-wire  cage,  the  outer  glass 
globe  should  have  an  inlet  and  outlet  tube  admitting  a  circula- 
tion of  air;  the  capacity  of  the  globe  and  ventilating  pipes 
should  be  such  as  to  keep  the  temperature  inside  the  outer 
globe  not  greater  than  140°  F. 

In  the  case  of  very  dusty  and  dangerous  localities,  the 
outer  globe  may  be  arranged  to  contain  water  instead  of 
air,  and  a  circulation  of  water  provided,  the  lamp  being 
immersed  therein.  In  all  cases  where  complete  globes  are 
used,  one  side  should  be  painted  to  prevent  the  focussing  of 
heat  rays. 

Lamps  should  be  attached  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  it 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  229 

impossible  to  be  broken  by  a  fall ;  for  this  purpose  a  light  wire 
cage  is  placed  immediately  about  the  lamp  globe.  No  wire 
carrying  a  current  should  be  used  to  support  a  lamp,  or  be  other- 
wise subjected  to  a  mechanical  stress. 

Lead  wires  should  be  inclosed  in  metal  tubing  up  to  the 
lamps,  and  the  lamp  wires  should  be  soldered  to  the  leads. 
No  mere  contact-joints  should  exist  in  the  leads  within  or  near 
the  magazine.  Each  lamp  should  be  provided  with  a  fuse 
cut-out  outside  the  magazine,  so  placed  as  to  be  readily  in- 
spected. The  fuses  should  consist  of  tin  wire  about  0.036  inch 
in  diameter,  additional  wires  in  parallel  being  used  if  necessary. 

Each  lamp  should  be  supplied  with  a  double-throw  switch 
outside  the  magazine,  by  means  of  which  the  circuit  may  be 
completely  broken.  Before  attempting  to  repair  or  replace  a 
lamp,  this  switch  should  be  thrown  off  for  that  lamp. 

An  efficient  leakage-detector  and  lightning-arrester  should 
be  placed  in  each  magazine-lighting  system. 

The  difference  of  potential  between  any  parts  of  the  circuit 
within  magazines  should  not  be  greater  than  110  volts. 

The  system  should  be  thoroughly  tested  from  time  to  time 
in  all  its  parts. 

Special  Storage  Regulations  for  High  Explosives. 

High  explosives  in  storage  should  have  blue  litmus  strips 
placed  in  each  package.  These  packages  should  be  examined 
once  a  month,  the  litmus  strip  replaced,  and  the  boxes  turned 
over.  Methyl  violet  paper  has  been  substituted  for  blue  litmus 
paper  by  recent  orders.  The  methyl  violet  pa;jer  should  not 
turn  white  in  30  days. 

The  floor  under  packages  containing  nitroglycerine  explosives 
should  be  covered  with  clean  sawdust,  to  absorb  any  nitrogly- 
cerine that  might  exude.  This  sawdust  should  be  renewed  from 
time  to  time,  the  old  sawdust  being  burned  in  the  open  air. 

In  case  a  floor,  or  package,  becomes  coated  or  stained  with 
free  nitroglycerine,  the  latter  should  be  decomposed  by  washing 
the  floor  or  package  with  a  solution  of  flowers  of  sulphur  in 


230  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

carbonate  of  sodium.  This  soda-sulphur  solution  should  be  kept 
on  hand  wherever  nitroglycerine  in  any  form  is  stored. 

Dynamite  should  be  stored  so  that  the  sticks  are  horizontal; 
the  tendency  of  dynamite  to  exude  nitroglycerine  is  greater  if 
the  sticks  stand  on  end. 

It  is  important  that  dynamite-cartridges  be  kept  dry.  If 
exposed  to  a  moist  atmosphere,  there  is  a  tendency  of  the  water 
condensed  from  the  air  on  all  exposed  surfaces  to  displace  the 
nitroglycerine. 

A  little  sodium  carbonate  is  usually  placed  in  dynamite. 
Moisture  often  causes  this  to  leave  to  some  extent  the  body  of 
the  cartridge  and  to  appear  as  a  white  efflorescence  on  the  out- 
side of  the  wrapper.  If  the  dynamite  is  not  otherwise  changed, 
particularly  if  blue  litmus  is  not  reddened  and  there  is  no  leak- 
ing of  nitroglycerine,  the  efflorescence  does  not  in  itself  indicate 
deterioration.  It  does  suggest,  however,  that  an  examination  of 
the  dynamite  should  be  made  with  a  view  to  determining  its 
condition  as  to  the  other  defects  named. 

Guncotton  is  always  stored  in  a  saturated  condition,  con- 
taining from  30  to  35  per  cent  of  water.  In  this  condition  it 
is  practically  non-explosive.  If  not  stored  in  hermetically 
sealed  cases,  guncotton  should  be  examined  monthly  and 
resaturated. 

Dry  guncotton  is  required  as  a  primer  in  detonating  wet 
guncotton.  Dry  guncotton  primers  should  be  stored  apart 
from  wet  guncotton.  The  disks  may  be  kept  dry  by  immersing 
in  melted  paraffin.  If  dry  primers  so  prepared  are  not  on  hand, 
wet  disks  should  be  dried  out  at  temperature  not  above  110°  F. 

Liquid  nitroglycerine  is  very  rarely  kept  in  storage.  If  it 
becomes  necessary  to  store  it,  it  should  be  stored  in  earthen 
crocks  only,  and  should  be  kept  covered  with  water.  These 
crocks  should  be  placed  on  supports  of  wood,  near  the  floor,  and 
over  a  trough  containing  sawdust  or  other  absorbent.  Like 
dynamite  and  guncotton,  it  should  be  examined  monthly  with 
blue  litmus  for  evidences  of  acidity. 

All  buildings  and  rooms  containing  these  explosives  should 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  231 

have  a  free  circulation  of  air  and  should  be  under  other  maga- 
zine conditions. 

Examination  of  Smokeless  Powder  in  Magazines. 

A  sample  of  each  accepted  lot  of  powder  is  kept  at  the  works 
of  the  manufacturers,  where  it  is  observed  from  time  to  time  and 
tested.  A  part  of  each  sample  should  be  kept  exposed  at  about 
104°  F.  (40°  C.),  under  conditions  resembling  as  near  as  possible 
those  which  obtain  in  storage-magazines.  This  part  of  the 
sample  should  be  carefully  examined  from  time  to  time,  and 
subjected  to  the  stability  test  once  every  three  months  for  the 
period  of  one  year  and  thereafter,  as  long  as  any  of  the  lot  is 
in  the  service,  once  every  six  months.  A  small  part  of  the 
original  sample  should  be  kept  permanently  in  a  glass  bottle, 
in  a  suitable  place,  where  it  can  be  under  observation.  Another 
sample  of  each  lot  of  the  powder  should  be  placed  in  a  glass- 
stoppered  bottle,  with  a  piece  of  moistened  litmus  paper  sus- 
pended just  clear  of  the  powder.  This  should  be  kept  in  position 
for  six  hours,  moistening  the  litmus  paper  from  time  to  time, 
noting  whether  the  litmus  paper  reddens  and  to  what  extent, 
and  being  careful  not  to  confuse  the  pink  color  due  to  the  ordi- 
nary bleaching  of  litmus  with  the  reddening  due  to  free  acid. 
In  order  to  determine  what  the  acid  color  for  a  given  piece  of 
litmus  should  be,  a  piece  of  the  paper  should  be  dipped  in 
vinegar  and  the  true  acid  color  will  result.  If  this  color  develops 
in  the  bottle,  it  is  due  to  escaping  nitro  fumes. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
from  falling  upon  powder  or  powder-boxes. 

External  Examination. 

In  making  superficial  examinations  of  smokeless  powder  a 
small  scoopful  should  be  taken  into  a  good  light,  where  a  change 
of  color  may  be  most  readily  detected.  Decomposing  powder 
becomes  lighter  in  color  all  over  or  in  spots,  showing  a  decidedly 


232  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

yellow  tinge,  and,  when  the  decomposition  is  well  established, 
the  grains  become  in  a  measure  soft,  yielding  to  the  pressure 
of  the  thumb  nail.  If  nitro  fumes  are  given  off,  the  inside 
of  the  box,  tank,  or  bag  would  probably  show  a  yellowish 
appearance,  and  an  acrid,  pungent  odor  of  nitric-peroxide  gas 
would  be  present.  Close  observation  is  necessary  to  detect 
these  signs  in  the  case  of  incipient  decomposition,  but,  if  dis- 
covered at  any  time,  such  powder  should  at  once  be  subjected 
to  the  stability  heat-test. 

In  case  the  heat  test  gives  evidence  of  diminished  stability, 
all  powder  of  the  lot  involved  should  be  immediately  segregated 
at  a  distance  from  other  powders  in  a  place  where,  if  combustion 
should  ensue,  no  harm  could  be  done.  The  place  of  storage 
should  be  cool  and  dry.  If  the  powder  should  give  evidence 
of  advanced  decomposition,  indicated  by  unmistakable  odor  of 
nitrous  fumes;  a  very  low  methyl  violet  paper  and  surveillance 
test,  whitening  one-tenth  normal  methyl  violet  paper  in  less 
than  20  days;  grains  friable  and  crumbling  easily  or  in  a  mushy 
condition,  it  should  be  removed  at  once  and  destroyed  either 
by  burning  in  the  open  air  or  immersing  in  water. 

Samples  of  each  lot  of  powder  received  at  a  magazine  should 
be  kept  in  glass-stoppered  bottles  and  so  placed  in  the  maga- 
zine that  they  can  be  regularly  and  carefully  examined  twice 
a  week. 

The  present  practice  of  the  U.  S.  Ordnance  Department  is 
to  issue,  in  the  cartridge-storage  case,  with  each  fifth  charge 
of  a  lot,  a  small  bag  containing  8  ounces  of  the  same  lot  as  the 
charge,  and  this  is  enough  for  two  4-ounce  observation  samples. 
The  cases  containing  such  samples  have  the  words  "  Observation 
Sample  "  stamped  in  red  on  the  linen  tag  attached  to  the  case, 
outside.  When  one  or  both  4-ounce  samples  are  removed  suit- 
able note  should  be  made  on  the  tag.  Charges  or  sections, 
packed  in  cases  with  samples,  should  be  expended  last. 

When  no  such  samples  are  available  for  separate  loading  or 
fixed  ammunition,  samples  must  be  taken  by  opening  a  pro- 
pelling charge  or  a  fixed  round,  and  when  this  is  done,  it  is 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  233 

necessary  to  put  in  the  place  of  the  amount  removed  a  like 
quantity  of  a  suitable  powder  of  recent  manufacture,  in  order 
that  the  muzzle  velocity  may  remain  normal.  Powder  for  this 
purpose  has  generally  been  issued  in  5-pound  containers,  and 
where  no  such  powder  is  on  hand  for  the  particular  model  of 
cannon  in  question,  more  must  be  obtained  by  requisition.  No 
charge  or  round  should  have  a  second  sample  taken  from  it,  and 
therefore  suitable  marks  should  be  put  on  the  container  whenever 
samples  are  taken. 

When  a  shipment  of  powder  is  received  at  a  storage-maga- 
zine, each  box  or  package  which  shows  signs  of  rough  handling 
and  liability  that  its  hermetical  sealing  has  been  destroyed 
should  be  opened  and  a  superficial  examination  made  of  its 
contents  to  ascertain  if  it  is  in  normal  condition. 

Fixed  ammunition  received  for  storage  should  have  a  few 
rounds  taken  apart  for  superficial  examination. 

Heat-  and  litmus-tests  should  be  made  in  each  case  where 
superficial  indications  of  incipient  decomposition  are  observed, 
and  unless  the  powder  meets  both  of  these  tests  it  should  not 
be  placed  in  the  magazine. 

In  preparing  fixed  ammunition,  care  must  be  exercised  to 
see  that  the  inside  of  the  case  is  free  from  grease  or  any  other 
foreign  substance,  and  that  the  base  of  the  projectile  is  per- 
fectly clean. 

The  temperature  and  hygroscopic  conditions  of  magazines 
should  be  constantly  watched.  Maximum  and  minimum  ther- 
mometers should  be  placed  one  in  the  hottest  part  of  the 
magazine  and  the  other  in  the  coolest.  The  temperatures 
should  be  taken  daily  and  noted  in  the  Magazine  Record 
Book 

Magazines  should  be  inspected  each  day  and  the  fact  noted 
in  the  Record  Book  over  the  signature  of  the  person  who  makes 
the  inspection. 

At  these  inspections  the  general  condition  of  the  magazine 
and  its  contents  should  be  examined  and  noted  in  the  Record 
Book.  If  the  condition  of  the  magazine  is  such  as  to  indicate 


234  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

that  everything  is  in  a  satisfactory  state  the  word  "Normal  " 
should  be  entered.  If  otherwise,  the  particular  defects  noted 
should  be  spread  upon  the  Record,  and  the  matter  reported 
at  once  to  the  proper  officer. 

No  loose  powder  should  be  permitted  in  any  building,  except 
such  as  is  actually  being  used  in  preparing  cartridges. 

Large  quantities  of  powder  should  not  be  permitted  in  car- 
tridge-filling rooms;  only  just  enough  to  supply  the  immediate 
need. 

As  rapidly  as  cartridges  are  filled  and  prepared  for  use,  they 
should  be  removed  from  the  filling-rooms  and  placed  in  storage. 

Neatness  and  cleanliness  should  be  insisted  upon  at  all 
times;  no  foreign  substances,  such  as  oakum,  waste,  rags,  paper, 
paint-pots,  -brushes,  etc.,  should  be  allowed  in  any  building 
assigned  for  the  storage  or  preparation  of  cartridges. 

If  it  should  at  any  time  become  necessary  to  dry  smoke- 
less powder,  it  should  be  done  out  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

Smokeless  powder  should  not  be  stored  in  magazines  wherein 
the  temperatue  runs  at  any  season  above  95°  F.,  or  which  ever 
reaches  104°  F.  If  the  temperature  tends  to  rise  so  high 
artificial  cooling  must  be  resorted  to. 

If  the  odor  of  ether  is  noticeably  strong  in  any  magazine, 
such  magazine  should  be  blown  out  with  portable  fans  or  other- 
wise ventilated. 

A  naked  light  should  never,  under  any  circumstances,  be 
taken  into  a  room  containing  any  quantity  of  powder. 

The  following  tests  and  examinations  should  be  made  of 
smokeless  powders  kept  in  service-magazines  at  posts : l 
Daily. — A  sample  from  each  lot  of  smokeless  powder  in  the 

magazine  is  to  be  kept  in  a  glass-stoppered  bottle2   in  a 

1  These  tests  do  not  apply  when  powder  is  stored  in  soldered  metallic 


2  The  style  of  bottle  desired  is  that  known  as  "  salt-mouth  "  bottles 
and  of  a  capacity  of  about  two  pounds;  they  should  be  filled  about  two-thirds 
full. 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  235 

conspicuous  place,  and  frequently  examined  in  a  good  light 
as  to  its  external  appearance. 

Fortnightly. — The  powder  in  one  or  more  boxes  or  bags  of  each 
lot  to  be  examined  externally  for  evidences  of  incipient 
decomposition. 

Monthly. — The  sample  in  the  index-bottles  will  be  subjected 
monthly  to  a  moist  litmus-paper  test  for  30  minutes. 

Quarterly. — A  sample  from  each  lot  in  the  magazine  to  be  sub- 
jected to  the  potassium-iodide-starch-test  for  40  minutes  once 
a  quarter,  and  also  to  a  six-hour  litmus-test. 

In  case  a  pungent  odor  is  detected  it  should  be  investi- 
gated. 

The  following  regulations,  with  regard  to  the  care  and  preser- 
vation of  smokeless  powders  in  store,  are  prescribed  by  the 
Ordnance  Department,  U.  S.  Army: 

All  lots  of  smokeless  powder  will,  as  far  as  practicable,  be 
shipped  from  the  manufacturers  to  one  of  the  powder  depots; 
except,  under  unusual  circumstances,  issues  to  posts  will  be 
made  only  from  such  depots. 

In  issuing  smokeless  powder  from  the  depots  the  oldest 
lots  in  store  will  be  issued  first,  unless  instructions  to  the  con- 
trary be  given. 

All  powders  stored  at  the  powder  depots  shall  be  tested 
as  follows: 

1.  By  the  usual  stability  tests  at  the  Ordnance  Laboratory. 
For  this  purpose  an  8-ounce  sample  from  each  lot  of  powder 
in  store  will  be  sent  to  the  laboratory  for  test. 

These  tests  of  powder  shall  be  made  each  six  months  after 
delivery.  The  samples  will  be  selected  as  follows:  From  lots 
for  the  10-inch  and  12-inch  B.  L.  rifles  not  more  than  one 
grain  shall  be  taken  from  a  box;  from  lots  for  guns  of  other 
calibers  5  per  cent  of  the  boxes  shall  be  opened  and  a  pro- 
portionate part  taken  from  each. 

2.  A  litmus  paper  test  will  be  made  every  three  months 
for  six  hours  from  a  sample  taken  from  one  or  more  boxes 
of  each  lot.     The  sample  is  placed  in  a  clean  glass-stoppered 


236  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

bottle,  and  a  piece  of  litmus  paper  moistened  with  water  (dis- 
tilled, if  practicable)  is  suspended  just  clear  of  the  powder.1 

3.  In  each  magazine  samples  of  each   lot  stored  therein 
should  be  placed  in  glass-stoppered  bottles  and  examined  semi- 
weekly.    The  appearance  of  yellowish  or  brownish-red  fumes 
gradually  assuming  a  red  color  as  the  quantity  increases  is  a 
sign  of  deterioration.    The  fumes  have  a  disagreeable,  sharp, 
acrid  odor  similar  to  that  of  nitric  acid,  and  are  very  irritating 
to  the  eyes  and  nose. 

Should  there  be  any  indication  of  fumes  the  bottle  should 
be  opened  and  two  pieces  of  litmus  paper  moistened  with  water 
(distilled  water,  if  possible)  quickly  inserted,  one  in  contact 
with  the  powder  and  one  hanging  from  the  stopper.  If  there 
are  any  fumes  being  evolved,  the  litmus  paper  should  be  red- 
dened in  a  few  hours.  The  moist  paper  will  gradually  dry 
out;  if  any  doubts  exist  as  to  its  reddening,  the  paper  should 
be  again  moistened  and  replaced.  The  papers  should  be  ex- 
posed in  the  bottles  or  boxes  for  at  least  six  hours. 

4.  Small  samples  of  each  lot  should  be  kept  in  glass  bottles, 
either  in  the  offices  or  in  some  suitable  place  for  purposes  of 
daily  observation.    These  bottles  should  not  be  exposed  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun,  nor  in  any  place  where  they  would  be 
liable  to  be  overheated. 

Recently  methyl  violet  paper  has  been  substituted  for 
litmus  paper  in  the  storage  tests  of  powder  at  fortifications. 
This  paper  placed  in  a  test  bottle  will  turn  white  in  less  than 
30  days  if  the  powder  be  bad.  The  test  consists  simply  in  placing 
a  standard  methyl  violet  paper  in  a  test  bottle  with  a  sample 
of  powder  the  first  of  each  month,  noting  the  color  at  the  end 
of  the  month  and  renewing  the  paper. 

This  test  is  the  only  powder-test  of  a  chemical  nature 
required  at  posts. 

The  Methyl- violet  test  paper  used  at  posts  is  what  is  called 
"  tenth-normal/'  that  is,  it  is  of  one-tenth  the  sensitiveness  of 

1  The  caution  mentioned  on  page  231  as  to  the  true  acid  color  should  be 
kept  in  mind. 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  237 

normal  methyl-violet  paper,  as  used  in  the  laboratory.  As 
received  fresh  at  posts,  it  should  have  the  violet  color  shown  at 
the  top  of  the  color  scale  in  the  Ordnance  Dept.  pamphlet  cited. 
Old  paper  or  paper  showing  soiling  or  discoloration  should  not 
be  used.  The  paper  may  be  handled  with  clean  dry  hands, 
but  the  less  it  is  handled,  the  better.  It  is  not  affected  by 
diffused  light,  but  should  not  be  exposed  to  direct  sunlight.  Its 
test-value  depends  upon  its  property  of  gradually  losing  its 
violet  color  in  the  presence  of  oxides  of  nitrogen  given  off  by 
decomposing  powder.  The  time  of  test  is  the  number  of  days 
required  for  it  to  become  entirely  white,  no  trace  of  the  violet, 
pink,  or  yellow  colors,  through  which  it  passes  in  the  change 
from  original  color,  remaining. 

To  make  the  test,  a  piece  of  fresh  1/10  normal  methyl  violet 
paper  is  marked  with  date  in  lead  pencil  and  inserted  dry,  in 
the  glass-stoppered  bottle  containing  the  4-ounce  sample  of 
powder,  in  such  a  way  that  the  tight  closure  of  the  bottle  is 
not  interfered  with  and  that  the  date  may  be  read  without 
opening  the  bottle.  Wedging  the  paper  between  stopper  and 
bottle  prevents  good  closure  and  should  be  avoided,  as  should 
unnecessary  opening  of  the  bottle;  as  absorption  of  moisture 
and  loss  of  volatiles  due  to  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  tend 
to  affect  the  powder,  while  escape  of  any  nitrous  fumes  that  may 
have  formed  would  tend  to  show  an  unduly  long  test  of  the 
powder-sample. 

Only  one  test-paper  should  be  in  a  bottle  at  one  time,  and  it 
should  be  replaced  by  a  fresh  one  at  the  end  of  each  month. 
Examine  about  the  10th,  20th  and  end  of  each  month  for  loss 
of  color,  making  this  examination  without  opening  bottle. 

Powders  of  new  manufacture  will  give,  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, a  test  of  two  months  or  more.  A  test  of  one  month  is  con- 
sidered as  indicating  a  satisfactory  degree  of  stability.  If  a 
sample  gives  a  test  of  less  than  one  month,  the  test  should  be 
repeated  upon  a  fresh  sample  taken  from  the  same  lot.  If  a 
test  is  less  than  20  days,  the  powder  of  lot  represented  should 
in  the  absence  of  special  instructions,  be  segregated  from  other 


238  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

lots.  Results  of  all  tests  completed  in  30  days  or  less  should  be 
reported,  using  blank  form  provided  for  the  purpose,  and  test 
papers,  with  the  dates  of  commencement  and  completion,  and  the 
lot-numbers  written  thereon,  should  accompany  the  report. 

Fresh  samples  should  be  taken  about  January  first  and  July 
first,  observing  all  the  precautions  laid  down  in  the  pamphlet. 


MINIMUM    DISTANCES    THAT    SHOULD    SEPARATE    STORAGE 
MAGAZINES  FROM  INHABITED  BUILDINGS. 

RECOMMENDED  BY  COL.  B.   W.  DUNN,   CHIEF  INSPECTOR,  BUREAU  FOR  THE 
SAFE    TRANSPORTATION    OF   EXPLOSIVES. 

Minimum  safe  distance  of 

Pounds  of  barricaded  l  storage  magazines 

Explosives.  from  inhabited  buildings. 

Feet. 

50.. 120 

100 180 

200 260 

300 320 

400  360 

500  400 

600  430 

700 460 

800 490 

900 510 

1,000 530 

1,500 600 

2,000 650 

3,000 710 

4,000 750 

5,000 780 

6,000 805 

1  "Barricaded,"  as  here  used,  signifies  that  the  building  containing 
explosives  is  screened  from  other  buildings  or  from  railways  by  either  natural 
or  artificial  barriers.  Where  such  barriers  do  not  exist,  the  distances  shown 
should  be  at  least  doubled. 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES.  239 

A 

Minimum  safe  distances  of 

Pounds  of  barricaded  l  storage  magazines 

Explosives.  from  inhabited  buildings. 

Feet. 

7,000.7 830 

8,000 850 

9,000 870 

10,000 '...  890 

20,000 1055 

30,000 1205 

40,000 1340 

50,000 1460 

60,000 1565 

70,000 1655 

80,000 , 1730 

90,000 1790 

100,000 1835 

200,000 2095 

300,000 2335 

400,000 2555 

500,000 2755 

600,000 2935 

700,000 3095 

800,000 3235 

900,000 3355 

1,000,000. 3455 

1  See  footnote  on  preceding  page. 


IX. 
HANDLING  HIGH  EXPLOSIVES. 

WHILE  the  explosives  herein  treated  have  enormous  potential 
energy  stored  up  in  them,  they  are  perfectly  safe  unless  a  definite 
act  be  taken  to  let  loose  this  energy. 

If  they  are  so  handled  that  no  particle  of  any  given  mass 
is  brought  to  a  certain  definite  temperature  by  application  of 
heat,  friction,  or  shock,  they  are  as  safe  as  any  other  solids  or 
liquids.  The  solid  nitro-explosives  are  at  least  no  more  dan- 
gerous than  the  old  black  gunpowder.  The  precautions  to  be 
kept  in  mind  have  been  pointed  out  as  the  several  explosives  have 
been  taken  up  in  succession.  Some  of  the  more  important  of  these 
may,  perhaps,  with  advantage  be  collected  and  repeated  here. 

Summary  of  Precautions  of  a  General  Nature  to  be  Observed  in 
Handling  Explosives. 

Avoid  bringing  any  matches  or  other  easily  combustible  sub- 
stances near  an  explosive. 

Avoid  the  use  of  hard,  rigid  tools,  implements,  or  apparatus 
in  connection  with  explosives.  A  particle  of  explosive  pinched 
between  two  hard  surfaces,  and  subjected  to  a  blow  or  to  sliding 
friction,  is  apt  to  explode.  The  minutest  particle  caught  in 
this  way  and  exploded  has  the  power  to  initiate  the  explosion 
of  a  large  mass.  Copper  is  the  only  metal  that  should  be  used 
about  explosives. 

Use  only  the  quantity  of  explosive  necessary  for  the  work 
in  hand,  and  keep  the  main  supplies  far  removed  from  the 
point  of  explosion,  and  well  protected  from  all  possible  exposure 
to  fire  or  shock,  or  to  handling  by  unauthorized  persons. 

Keep  explosives  and  means  of  exploding  them  apart  until 
it  is  desired  to  arrange  a  charge  for  explosion. 

240 


HANDLING  HIGH  EXPLOSIVES.  241 

Explosives  and  primers,  fuses  or  caps,  should  never  be 
transported  or  stored  together. 

Nitroglycerine,  dynamite,  dry  guncotton,  and  explosive 
gelatin,  if  transported,  should  be  protected  against  violent 
shock  by  preparing  a  soft,  elastic  bed  of  hay,  straw,  excelsior, 
or  similar  substance  in  the  cart,  wagon,  or  car.  Rough  pave- 
ments  and  roads  should  be  avoided  in  so  far  as  practicable. 

Never  prepare  a  dynamite  or  explosive  gelatin  primer  car~ 
tridge  near  other  dynamite  or  explosive  gelatin. 

Never  try  to  thaw  nitroglycerine  or  a  nitroglycerine  deriva- 
tive over  a  naked  flame  or  on  heated  metal.  Use  always  a 
closed  vessel  in  a  water-bath. 

In  case  a  charge  at  any  time  misses  fire,  do  not  be  in  haste  to 
investigate  the  cause.  Wait  at  least  ten  minutes,  and,  then,  when 
satisfied  that  no  explosion  is  to  take  place,  remove  the  tamping, 
cut  the  lead-wires  of  the  fuse,  and  prepare  another  primer.  Open 
up  the  charge  as  little  as  possible  and  not  near  the  old  primer. 

In  using  an  electric  current  for  firing,  the  wires  should  not  be 
connected  to  the  source  of  electricity  until  the  circuit  is  otherwise 
complete,  the  primer  in  place,  and  charge  all  ready  for  firing. 
One  man  should  be  detailed  to  see  that  the  firing  ends  of  the 
wires  are  not  tampered  with  while  the  charge  is  being  arranged. 

Before  firing  a  charge,  warning  should  be  given  to  all  persons 
connected  with  the  firing,  and  a  lookout  stationed  to  warn  off 
all  friends. 

Precautions  to  be  Observed  in  Charging  Torpedoes    and  Shell 
with  High  Explosives. 

The  work  should  be  done  in  light  frame  buildings  apart 
from  other  buildings.  The  floor  must  be  swept  frequently,  and 
the  sweepings  burned  at  a  distance. 

The  temperature  of  the  loading-room  should  not  be  above 
90°  F.  nor  below  50°  F. 

No  acids  or  primers  should  be  allowed  near  explosives  in 
bulk.  Magazine  conditions  will  be  strictly  enforced,  both  as  to 
persons  engaged  in  the  work  and  to  the  surroundings. 


242  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSINES. 

In  connecting  together  parts  of  material  by  screwing,  as 
in  fusing  shell  and  arranging  the  tropedo  fuse,  great  care  must 
be  exercised  that  no  particle  of  explosive  is  caught  in  the  screw- 
threads. 

Shell  loaded  with  picric  acid  or  its  derivatives  should  not 
have  screw-threads  coated  with  white  or  red  lead. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  that  particles  of  explosive  are 
not  dropped  on  the  floor. 

A  torpedo  loaded  with  dynamite  should  be  kept  carefully 
protected  from  the  sun's  rays.  The  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
would  soon  heat  the  interior  to  a  high  degree,  and  the  sensi- 
tiveness of  all  high  explosives  increases  rapidly  with  the  tem- 
perature. Loaded  torpedoes  should,  therefore,  be  kept  in  the 
shade,  and,  if  necessary,  covered  with  paulins. 

Safety  Precautions  in  Preparing  to  Fire  Demolition  Charges. 

1.  In  testing  fuses  or  detonators  never  attach  a  wire  to 
either  lead,  unless  the  fuse  or  detonator  is  safely  inclosed  or 
at  a  safe  distance. 

2.  Always  hold  a  cap  or  primer  pointing  from  you. 

3.  Be  careful  not  to  bend,  strike  hard,  or  heat  a  cap  or 
primer. 

4.  Do  not  place  caps  or  primers  near  strong  acids. 

5.  Be  careful  not  to  allow  any  strain  to  be  put  on  the  leads 
of  a  primer  in  making  up  a  charge  or  in  connecting  up  the 
circuit. 

6.  Any  one  who  connects  a  wire  to  the  lead  of  a  primer  is 
responsible  for  his  own  safety.     He  should  not  make  the  con- 
nection unless  he  knows  that  the  circuit  is  broken  between  him 
and  the  source  of  electricity.    To  increase  safety,  the  outer 
ends  of  the  circuit  should  be  put  in  charge  of  some  person,  with 
instructions  to  keep  the  leads  apart. 

7.  All  persons  except  those  directly  engaged  in  the  work 
should  withdraw  to  a  safe  distance  or  take  cover  while  the 
charge  is  being  made  up  and  the  circuit  prepared. 


HANDLING  HIGH  EXPLOSIVES. 


243 


8.  The  exploding-machine,  electric  battery  or  other  firing 
apparatus,  should  not  be  brought  to  the  firing-point  until  all 
preparations  for  firing  have  been  made.     The  last  thing  before 
firing  is  to  connect  the  leads  with  the  source  of  electricity. 

9.  Place  the  exploding  apparatus  or  machine  as  near  the 
charge  as  safety  permits.     Before  using,  test  the  machine  by 
seeing  if  it  will  redden,  by  heating,  a  small  piece  of  platinum 
wire,  or  if  it  will  explode  a  spare  primer,  or  take  the  throw  of 
a  galvanometer,  or  the  shock  of  the  current  between  ends  of 
short  leads  attached. 

10.  If  a  charge  is  to  be  fired  by  using  a  firing-key,  examine 
carefully  to  see  that  there  is  a  real  and  sufficient  break  when  the 
key  is  "off,"  and  that  there  are  no  loose  wires  or  other  means  near 
to  form  a  circuit  except  through  the  key.     In  firing,  connect 
one  terminal  of  the  firing-key  with  the  positive  pole  of  the  firing- 
battery,  and,  lastly,  connect  with  the  battery's  negative  pole. 

11.  Immediately  after  firing,  disconnect  both  leads  and  place 
them  in  charge  of  some  responsible  persons, 

as  explained  in  6. 

12.  In  testing  circuits  and  primers, 
not  more  than  1/20  ampere  should  flow 
through  any  primer. 

13.  For  certainty  of  ignition,  a  single 
large  charge  should  have  two  or  more 
primers  connected  up  in  parallel,  thus: 

14.  Always   use    the    same    kind   of 
primers  in  the  same  circuit. 

The  utmost  care  must  be  always  exer- 
cised in  handling  all  kinds  of  explosives' 
and  in  their  preparation  for  firing.  The 
tendency  of  those  charged  with  the  duty 
of  handling  explosives  is  to  become  care-  F 

less  and  indifferent,  and  to  neglect  those 

precautions  and  that  carefulness  which  should  always  be  ob- 
served in  connection  therewith.     Only  the   constant,  utmost 


244  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

watchfulness  will  avoid  accidents.  No  relaxation  of  these  pre- 
cautions or  of  the  rules  and  regulations  governing  magazine 
duties  should  be  permitted. 

Preparing  a  Charge  for  Firing. 

In  arranging  a  charge  for  firing,  the  primer-cartridge  of 
dynamite  or  the  primer-disk  of  guncotton  is  placed  as  near  as 
possible  in  the  middle  of  the  charge,  and  the  mass  of  explosives 
packed  tightly  around  it. 

The  charge  may  be  ignited  by  a  time-train  fuse,  or  by  an 
electric  primer  or  cap. 

If  a  time- train  is  used,  its  normal  rate  of  burning  in  open 
air  must  be  ascertained  by  trial.  A  single- tape  time- train  fuse 
will  burn  at  the  rate  of  about  1  foot  in  18  seconds,  a  double- 
tape  fuse,  1  foot  in  about  20  seconds,  a  triple-tape  fuse,  1  foot 
in  about  25  seconds. 

The  time-fuse  is  cut  to  the  desired  length,  placed  in  the  open 
end  of  the  cap,  and  the  latter  pinched  down  tightly  on  it,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2. 


FIG.  2. 

If  the  fuse  is  to  be  used  under  water,  the  cap  must  be  well 
coated  with  paraffin,  tar,  or  shellac,  so  as  to  make  the  joint 
water-tight. 

The  cap  is  next  inserted  in  the  cartridge.  In  doing  this,1 
open  that  end  which  has  the  longest  paper-folds.  Punch  a  hole 
in  the  center  of  the  end  of  the  cartridge  with  a  round-pointed 
stick,  making  the  hole  slightly  larger  than  the  cap.  Insert  the 
cap  (about  two-thirds  of  its  length)  until  it  is  almost  but  not 
quite  covered  by  the  explosive.  Bring  the  paper  of  the  car- 
tridge close  around  the  fuse-train  and  tie  tightly  with  a  strong 

lThe  description  contemplates  a  dynamite  stick-cartridge. 


HANDLING  HIGH  EXPLOSIVES.  245 

string.     The  primer- cartridge  thus  made  will  appear  in  longi- 
tudinal section,  as  shown  in  the  following  figure. 

The  charge  having  been  arranged  with  the  primer-cartridge 
as  near  as  possible  in  the  center,  the  train  is  led  off  in  the  direc- 


FIG.  3. —  Primer-cartridge  arranged  with  time- train  fuse. 

tion  of  cover,  its  free  end  is  ignited,  and  the  operator  quickly 
withdraws. 

In  firing  by  electricity,  an  electric  primer  is  used.  A 
primer-cartridge  is  prepared  as  follows:  The  paper  is  unfolded 
at  one  end  of  the  cartridge,  an  opening  is  made  in  the  center 
of  the  end  with  a  pointed  round  stick,  a  little  larger  than  the 
primer-cap.  The  cap  is  inserted  until  the  upper  end  is  nearly 
but  not  quite  flush  with  the  upper  surface  of  the  explosive  in 
the  cartridge.  The  lead-wires  are  then  bent  sharp  over  the 
end  of  the  cartridge  and  along  its  side  to  the  opposite  end, 
leaving  the  free  ends  of  the  wires  at  that  end.  In  passing 
along  the  cartridge,  two  half-hitches  should  be  taken  around 
the  cartridge  with  the  lead-wires,  one  near  the  end  in  which 
the  cap  is  placed,  to  prevent  the  latter  from  being  disturbed; 
the  other  near  the  opposite  end.  When  completed,  the  primer- 
cartridge  should  appear  as  in  Fig.  4. 


FIG.  4. — Primer-cartridge  arranged  for  electric  firing. 

To  allow  for  this  arrangement,  and  to  allow  also  for  ample 
free  ends,  the  lead-wires  should  be  at  least  6  feet  long. 

This  primer-cartridge  should  be  placed  at  the  center  of  the 
charge  and  the  components  of  the  charge  packed  tightly  about 
it,  the  free  lead-wires  passing  out  through  the  charge  in  the 
direction  of  the  point  from  which  it  is  to  be  fired. 

In  the  case  of  guncotton,  a  dry  block  is  taken  for  the  primer- 


246 


NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


block.  The  primer  is  placed  in  the  hole  of  the  block  and  packed 
in  tightly  with  scraped  dry  guncotton  taken  from  the  corners 
of  the  block.  The  leads  are  then  bent  over  and  around  the 
block,  making  a  close-fitting  half-hitch.  If  it  is  to  be  fired 
under  water  the  whole  should  be  dipped  in  melted  paraffin. 

In  jointing  wires,  strip  off  the  insulation  for  about  two  inches, 
leaving  the  end  of  the  insulation  conical,  like  the  wood  part  of  a 
pointed  lead-pencil,  and  clean  the  wire  carefully  with  the  back  of  a 
knife,  or  other  suitable  tool,  until  a  smooth,  even,  bright  metallic 
surface  is  obtained,  being  careful  not  to  nick  or  roughen  the 
surface  of  the  bared  wire  if  possible.  Cross  the  wires  at  right 
angles,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  Then  bend  each  wire  around  the 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


other  spirally  in  the  direction  of  the  pointed  insulation  of  the 
other  wire,  keeping  the  turns  of  the  spiral  close  together,  as 
shown  in  Figs.  6  and  7.  Three  or  four  turns  should  be  made, 
pressing  the  turns  tightly  down  on  the  standing  part  of  the  other 
wire,  using  pincers,  preferably,  to  make  the  turns  regular  and 
tightly  pressed  on  the  other  wire.  Cut  off  the  spare  ends  and 
pinch  the  cut  ends  close  down,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8. 


FIG.  7. 


FIG.  8. 


In  jointing  stranded  wires,  each  strand  should  be  separately 
cleaned,  and  each  strand  wrapped  around  the  standing  part  of 
the  other  wire,  as  explained  above  for  a  solid  wire. 


HANDLING  HIGH  EXPLOSIVES.  247 

A  three-way  joint  is  made  by  first  making  a  simple  joint, 
as  explained  above,  and  then  opening  the  wires  at  the  first 
crossing  sufficiently  to  insert  the  bared  end  of  the  third  wire, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  9.  This  third  wire  is  wrapped  closely  down 


FIG.  9.  FIG.  10. 

on  the  turns  of  the  first  wires.  Other  wires  may  be  connected 
in,  in  the  same  manner. 

Important  joints  should  be  soldered  if  time  allows.  To 
solder  a  joint,  first  wash  the  joint  with  zinc  chloride,  heat  the 
soldering-iron  until  it  will  readily  melt  the  solder.  Rub  one 
face  of  the  iron  with  a  coarse  file,  then  rub  over  a  little  sal 
ammoniac;  or  dip  it  quickly  in  a  solution  of  sal  ammoniac, 
then  rub  the  solder  on  this  cleaned  face  of  the  iron  and  apply 
to  the  joint.  The  solder  should  be  hot  enough  to  run  freely 
into  the  spaces  between  the  wires.  The  joint  is  then  washed 
clean  with  carbonate  of  soda  or  other  alkaline  solution.  In- 
stead of  zinc  chloride,  a  solution  of  resin  in  spirits  of  wine  may 
be  used. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  bare  hands  off  the 
scraped  wires,  and  to  keep  the  latter  free  from  all  grease. 

All  joints,  whether  soldered  or  not,  should  be  insulated. 
This  is  accomplished  by  the  usual  insulating  rubber  tape.  Begin 
well  down  on  the  .wire  insulation  and  wrap  spirally  well  over 
on  the  insulation  of  the  other  side  of  the  joint;  letting  each 
turn  overlap  the  previous  one  one-half,  ending  in  a  half-hitch 
(see  Fig.  10). 

If  the  joint  is  to  lie  under  the  water,  each  turn  of  the  insula- 
tion-wrapping should  be  carefully  smeared  with  india-rubber 
solution  before  the  next  turn  is  laid  over  it.  In  unsoldered 


248  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

joints,  the  india-rubber  solution  should  not  be  placed  over  tape 
lying  next  to  and  immediately  over  the  twisted  wires.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  notice  that  the  tape  adheres  to  the  rubber 
solution  as  it  is  laid  down,  and  especially  to  the  insulation  of 
the  wires  on  each  side.  To  insure  this,  the  insulation  of  the 
wires  and  the  tape  to  be  laid  down  should  be  cleaned  off  with 
a  little  naphtha,  and  the  insulation  smeared  with  rubber  solution. 

A  good  water-tight  joint  may  be  made  by  slipping  a  piece 
of  rubber  tubing  on  the  wire  before  the  jointing,  then,  after  the 
jointing,  slipping  it  wer  the  joint  and  binding  it  on  each  side 
tightly  down  on  the  wire  insulation  with  strong  twine  or  with 
pliable  wire. 

If  neither  tape  nor  tubing  is  available,  a  fairly  good  insu- 
lated joint,  suitable  for  use  in  damp  places,  may  be  made  by 
slitting  longitudinally  the  insulation  of  a  spare  piece  of  wire, 
detaching  it  carefully  from  the  wire,  cutting  this  piece  in  two 
across,  and  then  applying  the  two  sections  over  the  joint  and 
binding  down  tightly  with  twine  or  fine  wire. 

A  joint  should  be  made  in  that  part  of  the  circuit  least  liable 
to  moving  or  bending.  If  necessary,  the  joints  should  be  fixed 
in  position  by  weights  or  stakes  or  staples. 

Before  a  circuit  is  connected  up  for  firing,  the  joints  should 
be  tested  for  continuity.  The  complete  circuit  should  finally 
be  tested  by  a  weak  current. 

The  service-exploder  is  known  as  the  Laflin  &  Rand 
Magneto-electric  Machine,  or  the  Laflin  &  Rand  Exploder. 

The  internal  arrangement  (see  -Figs.  11,  12,  and  14)  consists 
of  a  Siemens  armature,  B,  which  revolves  between  soft-iron 
prolongations  of  the  cores  of  an  electromagnet,  A. 

The  electricity  is  generated  by  forcing  the  armature  to 
revolve  in  the  field  of  the  magnet  and  is  transformed  by  a  com- 
mutator, F,  from  an  alternating  to  a  continuous  current.  The 
circuit  passes  from  the  commutator-springs  into  the  adjacent 
ends  of  the  windings  of  the  magnet.  The  back-strap  ends  of 
the  windings  of  the  two  halves  of  this  magnet  are  extended 
to  the  terminals,  or  binding  posts,  G,  for  the  connecting  wires; 


HANDLING  HIGH  EXPLOSIVES. 


249 


and  thence  to  a  brass  spring,  D,  and  collar,  E,  where,  by  plati- 
num points,  they  are  joined  together,  thus  completing  an  interior 
short  circuit  as  a  shunt.  The  magnet  is  wrapped  with  1.76 
ohms  of  co.tton-insulated  copper  wire,  No.  18,  B.  W.  G.,  and 
the  armature  with  0.92  ohms  of  No.  21  of  the  same.  The 
novelty  of  the  machine  lies  in  the  mode  of  giving  rotation 
to  the  Siemens  armature,  and  of  switching  into  the  firing 
circuit  the  powerful  induced  current.  Both  objects  are  accom- 
plished by  the  firing-bar,  which  consists  of  a  square  brass 


FIG.  11.— End  View. 


FIG.  12.— Side  View. 


rod,  14  by  J  by  J  inches,  fitted  with  a  wooden  handle  at  one 
end,  the  other  end  passing  down  into  the  box.  One  side  of  the 
bar  is  provided  with  teeth  which  engage  in  a  loose  pinion,  C, 
fitted  over  the  prolongation  of  the  armature  spindle.  A  clutch 
holds  the  pinion  to  the  spindle  when  the  rod  is  descending,  but 
leaves  it  free  when  the  latter  is  raised,  thus  restricting  the 
revolutions  of  the  armature  to  one  direction  only.  When  the 
firing-bar  reaches  its  lowest  position,  it  strikes  the  brass  spring 
which  forms  part  of  the  interior  circuit ;  and,  if  in  rapid  motion, 
the  shock  breaks  the  circuit  and  thus  shunts  the  current  into 
the  firing  circuit. 


250 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


In  passing  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  box;  the  rod 
causes  seven  and  one-half  complete  revolutions  of  the  armature; 
and,  if  the  movement  be  the  result  of  a  sudden  and  downward 
pressure,  this  is  enough  to  develop  a  powerful  electrical  current. 

This  form  of  exploder  is  very  compact  and  strong,  and  not 
liable  to  get  out  of  order  except  through  very  rough  usage. 

The  machine  may  become  temporarily  deranged  through 
two  causes: 

1st.  Dust  or  some  foreign  substance  may  find  its  way  be- 
tween the  platinum  contact-points  between  D  and  E,  Fig.  11. 


FIG.  13. 


FIG.  14. 


By  removing  the  screws  that  hold  it  in  place,  the  rear  of  the 
case  may  be  removed  and  the  trouble  remedied  by  using  a  piece 
of  fine  emery-cloth. 

2d.  Trouble  may  arise  from  the  surface  of  the  commutator 
becoming  tarnished.  In  order  to  cleanse  it,  remove  the  rear  of 
the  case  as  before,  and  also  the  small  pin  near  the  lower  end  of 
the  firing-bar,  and  then  withdraw  the  firing-bar  from  the  case. 


HANDLING  HIGH  EXPLOSIVES.  251 

The  works  of  the  machine,  with  the  shelf  upon  which  they  rest, 
are  next  partially  removed  from  the  case,  and  the  springs  which 
press  upon  the  commutator,  and  the  yoke  which  holds  in  place 
the  spindle  upon  which  the  commutator  revolves,  are  discon- 
nected. The  commutator  may  then  be  cleaned  with  a  piece  of 
fine  emery-cloth. 

Proper  attention  to  these  details  and  careful  preparation 
of  the  wires  and  fuses  save  a  vast  deal  of  trouble,  and  cannot 
be  too  strongly  insisted  upon  when  success  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary and  time  is  to  be  saved. 

To  use  the  exploder,  note  that  safety  precautions  have  been 
taken  by  all  persons;  clean  the  lead  ends;  attach  cleaned  ends 
to  the  binding-posts  (G,  Fig.  13)  of  the  exploder;  raise  the  firing- 
bar1  (B,  Fig.  13)  to  its  full  height;  force  the  firing-bar  down 
with  firm,  rapid,  uniform  stroke,  keeping  the  bar  vertical. 

In  some  recent  forms  of  this  exploder,  there  are  three  binding- 
posts  for  firing  a  larger  number  of  primers  than  can  be  fired  by 
two.  The  third  post  is  connected  at  a  central  point  of  the 
group  of  fuses;  the  current  goes  out  on  this  central  line  and 
divides  over  the  two  return  routes.  The  resistance  is  thus 
lowered,  so  that  a  sufficient  current  is  developed  to  fire  the 
primers  in  each  return  route. 

1  The  firing-bar  should  be  kept  down  at  all  times,  except  in  the  act  of 
firing. 


. '  x. 

DEMOLITIONS. 

DEMOLITIONS  may  be  divided  into  two  kinds :  (1)  deliberate 
and  (2)  hasty. 

In  the  case  of  deliberate  demolitions,  time  is  not  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  preliminary  arrangements,  and  economy 
of  means  and  material  may  be  given  due  consideration. 

In  hasty  demolitions,  the  saving  of  time  is  the  controlling 
consideration.  Tamping,  and  other  means  of  economizing  the 
quantity  of  explosive  required  for  a  given  demolition,  must  often 
be  neglected,  and  hence  hasty  demolitions  require  relative 
larger  quantities  of  explosives  than  deliberate  demolitions. 
Hasty  demolitions  only  are  considered  in  these  notes. 

When  the  demolition  requires  mass  effect,  a  progressive  ex- 
plosive like  gunpowder  is  to  be  preferred  to  a  high  explosive.  If 
a  local  shattering  effect  is  desired,  the  latter  is  to  be  preferred. 

With  gunpowder,  tamping  is  essential  if  a  good  effect  is  to 
be  had.  Tamping  is  not  so  important  with  dynamite,  gun- 
cotton,  and  other  high  explosives.  The  full  effect  of  dynamite 
is  obtained  when  the  tamping  is  equal  in  thickness  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  mass  to  be  destroyed;  with  gunpowder,  the  tamping 
should  be  1J  to  2  times  thicker. 

Demolitions  may  be  "moderate,"  in  which  the  fragments 
remain  at  or  near  the  point  of  explosion;  or  "  violent,"  in  which 
the  fragments  are  scattered  and  thrown  to  some  distance. 

In  destroying  masonry  revetment  walls,  the  charge  should 
be-  placed  on  the  back  of  the  wall  on  a  level  with  the  foot  of  it, 

252 


DEMOLITIONS.  253 

and  along  the  length  of  the  wall  to  be  demolished.  For  this 
purpose  a  gallery  must  be  driven  through  the  revetment  and 
extended  right  and  left  behind  it.  The  charge  should  be  suffi- 
cient to  destroy  the  wall,  and  should  be  covered  in  the  gallery 
through  the  revetment  with  earth  1J  times  the  thickness  of 
the  wall.  If  the  wall  have  buttresses,  there  should  be  an  addi- 
tional charge  and  tamping  opposite  these  points.  The  foot  of 
the  wall  may  be  reached  by  a  shaft  from  above,  instead  of  a 
gallery  through  it.  The  lateral  galleries  should  be  run  the 
same,  however. 

The  resistance  of  ordinary  masonry  may  be  taken  at  1J 
times  that  of  a  similar  thickness  of  earth.  A  tamping  of  earth 
over  the  charge  double  the  thickness  of  the  wall  should  be 
sufficient. 


Buildings. 

Large  buildings  with  substantial  masonry  walls  should  have 
the  charges  laid  at  intervals  all  along  the  ground  at  the  foot 
of  the  outside  walls.  A  ditch  dug  parallel  to  the  line  of  charges 
will  furnish  earth  for  tamping. 

If  the  charges  be  let  a  short  distance  into  the  wall,  the 
charge  may  be  smaller  and  the  tamping  reduced. 

It  would  be  better  to  place  the  charges  inside,  but,  as  a 
rule,  the  interior  arrangements,  floors,  etc.,  interfere,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  get  sufficient  earth  for  tamping. 

When  there  is  difficulty  in  getting  earth  for  tamping  it 
may  be  necessary  to  blast  the  walls  down. 

Blasting  is  effected  by  relatively  small  charges  of  explosives 
placed  in  holes  of  small  diameter  called  ."  bore-holes."  It  is 
resorted  to  only  where  hard,  rigid  material  is  to  be  removed, 
such  as  rock,  masonry,  etc.  The  charge  must  be  put  in  the 
form  to  fit  the  bore-holes.  The  stick  form  of  dynamite  is  a 
convenient  one  to  charge  bore-holes. 

The  positions  of  bore-holes  with  respect  to  the  mass  to  be 
demolished  are  important. 


254 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


The  direction  of  maximum  effect  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
bore-hole  opposite  the  centei  of  the  charge. 
The  charge  should  be  so  placed  that  the 
"  burden  "  of  the  charge  is  on  this  line.  This 
line  of  the  "  bur  den  "  of  the  charge  is  the 
"line  of  resistance/'  abbreviated  L.R.  It  is 
the  longest  line  from  the  charge  at  right 
angles  to  the  bore-hole  in  the  direction  the 
explosive  effect  must  be  carried. 

The  angle  of  the  bore-holes  should  be  less 
with  the  face  of  the  mass,  the  harder  and 
more  tenacious  the  latter. 

When   there   are    two   free    surfaces  the 
bore-hole    should    be    run    parallel   to    the 
longest   free    side,    as    illustrated   in   Fig.    16 
crater. 

If  the  mass  be  vertical  and  have  an  undercut,  as  in  Fig.  17, 
the  bore-hole  should  be  driven  at  least  beyond  the  angle  at  d. 
The  depth  of  the  bore-hole  should  be  at  least  f  A.D.  If  the 
side  AD  is  not  parallel  to  the  bore-hole  ac,  then  L.R.  is  the 
longest  perpendicular  to  the  charge.  In  all  cases  the  size  of 


FIG.  15. 
acb  =  probable 


FIG.  16. 


FIG.  17. 


the  charge  must  be  adjusted  to  this  longest  perpendicular.  If 
this  is  not  done,  a  small  crater  like  }cb  might  be  made,  leaving 
the  rest  of  the  mass  undisturbed. 


DEMOLITIONS.  255 

A  vertical-face  undercut  without  a  top  surface  should  be 
arranged  as  in  Fig.  18,  the  bore-hole  being  parallel  to  the 
undercut  face. 

When  several  bore-holes  are  placed  in  series  the  distance 
between  them  should  be  equal  to  1J  L.R.  when  fired 
separately,  and  equal  to  2  L.R.  when  fired  simulta- 
neously. 

In  charging  a  bore-hole,  as  many  sticks  of  dy- 
namite or  other  explosive  as  may  be  required,  ac- 
cording to  the   computation    for    the    charge,    are 
placed  in  the  hole,  pressed  firmly  with  a  wooden  drift 
until    the    sticks    are    in   close   contact  with  each 
IG*     '      other  and  with   the   sides   of  the   bore-hole.    The 
primer-cartridge  is  placed  in  last.     A  paper  or  cloth  wad  is 
placed  over  this,  and  the  whole  is  tamped  with  sand  or  other 
material. 

The  weight  of  charge  in  ounces  may  be  computed  by  the 
following  formula : 

Let  C  =  total  charge  in  ounces. 

c  =  charge  per  foot  run  of  bore-holes  in  ounces,  i.e., 

= C 

length  of  bore-hole  in  feet  * 
L.R.  =line  of  resistance  in  feet. 

k  =  coefficient  of  resistance  of  the  mass  to  be  blasted. 
B  =  length  of  bore-hole  in  feet. 
Then 


k  is  determined  by  experiment  for  the  material  to  be  blasted. 
When  not  known,  and  there  is  not  time  to  determine  it;  it  may 
be  taken  as  0.2. 


256  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

For  blasting  purposes  dynamite  or  explosive  gelatin  is,  as  a 
rule,  more  convenient  than  gunpowder  or  guncotton. 

Buildings  can,  as  a  rule,  be  demolished  more  economically 
and  readily  by  blasting  charges  placed  in  the  walls  than  by 
charges  placed  along  the  bottoms  of  walls  and  covered  with 
earth. 

Charges  of  black  gunpowder  will  be  effective  in  demolishing 
walls  when  placed  at  the  middle  of  the  wall,  provided  the  charge 
is  in  compact  form,  and  the  diameter  of  the  bore-hole  is  greater 
in  inches  than  the  wall  is  thick  in  feet. 

In  boring  into  walls,  the  holes  should  slant  downward 
toward  the  middle  of  the  wall  at  an  angle  of  45°.  The  middle  of 
the  wall  will  be  reached  when  the  bore-hole  is  IjV  L.L.R.1 
The  hole  must  then  be  lengthened  so  as  to  contain  one-half  the 
charge,  and  to  bring  the  center  of  the  charge  at  the  middle  of 
the  wall. 

The  amount  of  explosive  may  be  reduced  by  cutting  away 
portions  of  the  wall,  leaving  only  piers  to  be  demolished. 

If  the  strength  of  the  wall  varies  from  point  to  point  by 
buttresses  or  other  construction,  the  charge  must  be  increased 
at  such  points.  Bore-holes  may  be  driven  as  follows: 

Single. — Slant  downwards  at  45°,  alternating  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  wall. 

V-shaped. — Same,  but  directly  opposite  each  other,  meeting 
at  the  middle  of  the  wall. 

X-shaped. — Same,  but  crossing  at  middle  of  wall. 

The  table  on  page  253  gives  the  charges  of  black  powder 
required  for  demolitions  when  placed  twice  the  line  of  least 
resistance  apart. 

If  the  holes  have  to  be  made  with  a  diameter  in  inches 
less  than  f  L.L.R.,  V  or  X  holes  may  be  used  with  diminished 
intervals,  or  two  parallel  holes  may  be  cut  side  by  side  and  the 
partition  between  them  cut  away. 

1  L.L.R  =line  of  least  resistance,  it  is  thaHine  drawn  outward  from  the 
charge  a*ong  which  the  resistance  is  smallest      It  is  always  expressed  in  feet. 


DEMOLITIONS. 


257 


Diameter  of 
Hole  in 

Charge  of 
Powder  in 

Depth  to 
which  each 
Hole  is  to  be 

Kind 
of 

Length  of 
Hole  Occu- 
pied by 

Remarks. 
Charges  to  be  Fired 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Bored  in 

Hole. 

Powder  in 

Simultaneously. 

Feet, 

Feet. 

2  L.L.R. 

i  (L.L.R.)3 

14  L.L.R. 

Single 

i  L.L.R. 

This  is  the  best  size 

of  hole. 

1|     " 

A  (L.L.R.)' 

If      " 

(i 

f      " 

•' 

i  (L.L.R.)3 

2*     "< 

(i 

1  1      (i 

M 

4  (L.L.R.)3 

V 

4     " 

Half  the  charge  in 

each  hole;    over- 

f     " 

4  (L.L.R.)3 

2       " 

X 

H    " 

lap  slightly. 
Half  the  charge  in 

each  hole;    over- 

lap equally,  form- 

ing X. 

L.  L.  R.  always 

expressed  in  feet. 

Bridges. 

The  destruction  of  bridges  is  an  important  division  of  demoli- 
tions. Usually  the  time  available  for  preparation  is  brief; 
traffic  over  the  bridge  cannot  be  interrupted  during  the  prep- 
aration; and,  finally,  the  destruction  must  be  accomplished 
suddenly  when  the  proper'  time  has  arrived,  and  the  demolition 
must  be  certain  and  complete. 

The  proper  way  to  destroy  a  masonry  bridge  of  a  single  arch 
is  to  demolish  one  or  both  haunches. 

A  bridge  having  piers  should  have  the  charges  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  piers,  and  several  charges  should  be  placed  rather 
than  one  large  one,  since  the  risk  of  failure  of  a  single  charge 
should  not  be  run;  several  charges  should  be  placed  at  inter- 
vals apart  equal  to  2  L.L.R. 

The  arch  of  a  bridge  offers  greater  resistance  to  destruction 
than  a  plane  surface.  The  charge  should  always  be  placed  on 
the  haunch  and  so  that  cb  is  the  L.L.R.;  its  resistance  being 
less  than  ca,  or  any  other  line  out  from  c  to  any  surface. 

In  order  to  insure  these  relations,  ca  or  any  other  line  should 
be  equal  at  least  to  3  cb.  The  distance  between  charges  across 
the  width  of  the  bridge  should  not  be  greater  than  2  cb. 


258 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


If  the  briJge  is  to  be  destroyed  with  a  single  charge,  the 
L.L.R  (cb)  should  be  made  equal  to  at  least  J  the  width  of 
the  bridge.  Except  with  very  narrow  bridges,  it  would  be 
better  to  use  multiple  charges. 

A  single  charge  placed  at  the  crown  is  not  advisable,  for  the 
reason  that  it  may  simply  blow  out  the  crown,  as  indicated 


6-Uc 


fcpc 


FIG.  19. 

by  the  lines  xxf  and  yyf,  making  the  repair  of  the  bridge  a  com- 
paratively simple  matter.  It  might  be  that  this,  in  some 
special  case,  would  be  desired;  then  an  overcharge  should  be 
distributed  across  the  bridge  along  the  crown,  midway  between 
the  roadway  and  the  surface  of  the  crown. 

When  there  is  not  sufficient  time  to  place  charges  to  destroy 
the  haunches,  several  rows  of  charges  should  be  placed  over  the 
arch,  as  shown  at  ddd.  The  distances  between  these  charges 
across  the  width  should  not  be  greater  than  2  L.L.R.  The 


DEMOLITIONS.  259 

L.L.R.  should  be  regulated  by  the  depth  of  the  stones  forming 
the  arch.  It  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  less  than  1J  feet  nor 
more  than  5  feet:  if  less  than  the  former,  the  charges  would 
be  too  small;  if  greater  than  the  latter,  too  large. 

Another  method  of  arranging  the  charge  is  to  place  it  in  a 
trough  suspended  below  the  arch.  This  answers  better  for 
high  explosives  than  for  gunpowder. 

The  following  empirical  formula  is  given  by  Captain  H. 
Schaw,  R.E.,  for  determining  the  charge  of  powder  required 
to  demolish  a  strongly  built  masonry  arched  bridge,  when  the 
charge  is  well  tamped  and  placed  over  the  haunch,  at  a  depth 
below  the  roadway  equal  to  twice  the  distance  through  to  the 
surface  of  the  arch:  C  =  f(L.L.R.)2x£. 

Placed     in     a     shallow 

Tr  ,     n     2  /r  T  T>  \9  vx  D    trench  along  crown  on  the 

If  on  the  arch:  (7=  §(L.L.R.)2  XB  ••  &. 

keystone,    with   excavated 

.  material  placed  over  it. 

In  which  C  is  the  total  charge  of  powder  in  pounds  required  for 
the  charge  in  a  single  mass,  or  in  line  across  the  bridge;  L.L.R  is 
the  line  of  least  resistance;  B  is  the  breadth  of  the  bridge  in  feet. 

When  a  bridge  is  wide,  the  charges  may  be  placed,  without 
stopping  traffic,  by  sinking  a  shaft  in  the  middle  of  the  roadway 
and  placing  a  board  cover  over  the  shaft.  When  the  bridge  is 
narrow,  the  charges  may  be  placed  by  running  galleries  from 
the  side  walls.  If  the  mining  be  difficult  and  the  time  limited, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  resort  to  overcharged  mines. 

Wooden  bridges  may  be  destroyed  by  explosives,  cutting 
through  the  important  ties  or  struts  of  the  middle  section,  or 
by  burning  or  cutting  or  sawing  through  the  important  members. 

Iron-girder  Bridges. 

These  bridges  should,  as  a  rule,  be  destroyed  by  demolishing 
the  girders,  their  members  or  parts,  rather  than  by  blowing  up 
the  piers,  unless  there  be  ample  time  and  it  is  desired  to  effect 
the  greatest  damage  possible. 


260 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


Girders  may  be  solid  and  continuous,  as  in  the  simple  I-beam 
girder,  or  they  may  be  in  the  form  of  a  built-up  truss. 

Where  there  is  a  continuous  truss  across  several  spans,  the 
shore  spans  should  be  cut  near  the  first  pier,  thus : 


FIG.  20. 

Cut  at  XX'.  If  the  spans  are  large,  usually  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  cut  one  span. 

When  the  girder  is  not  continuous,  but  rests  separately  as 
a  single 'span: 

(a)  If  it  consist  of  a  single  span  of  uniform  cross-section 
throughout,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  small  bridges,  cut  near 
both  ends,  thus : 


'X' 


FIG.  21. 


(6)  If  it  consist  of  a  truss,  or  strengthened  beam,  cut  at  a 
point  near  'each  support  just  before  the  first  strengthening  or 
thickening  of  the  parts  begins,  thus : 


X 


FIG.  22. 


Specific  rules  cannot  be  laid  down  for  cutting  each  separate 


DEMOLITIONS.  261 

type  of  truss,  but  there  are  certain  general  rules,  such  as  those 
just  given,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  guide. 

To  insure  complete  destruction,  the  cut  should  be  made 
through  the  entire  truss.  When  there  is  not  available  sufficient 
explosive  for  cutting  through  a  whole  truss,  the  upper  and 
lower  chords  should  be  cut.  If  there  is  not  enough  for  both 
chords,  cut  the  tension-chord  of  the  panel  rather  than  the  com- 
pression-chord. 

With  a  solid  I-beam  girder,  the  explosive  should  be 
placed  on  both  top  and  lower  flange  and  against  the  web 
between. 

Curved  girders,  whether  solid  or  built  up  open,  should  be 
cut  completely  through  on  both  haunches,  if  possible. 

Suspension  bridges  should  be  cut  through  each  cable,  either 
at  the  middle  of  the  cables  or  near  the  anchors;  the  former  for 
large  bridges  and  the  latter  for  small  ones. 

Large  iron- truss  bridges  on  stone  piers  may  be  most  effectu- 
ally destroyed  by  blasting  the  piers,  but  this  should  be  attempted 
only  when  there  is  ample  time.  Small  girder-bridges  may  be 
pried  by  levers  off  their  piers  or  abutments,  if  no  explosives 
be  at  hand. 

Iron-truss  bridges  may  be  destroyed  also  by  fires  built 
against  the  important  struts  or  ties;  when  red-hot,  the  heated 
members  will  give  way  and  the  structure  will  collapse. 

Suspension  bridges  may  be  destroyed  by  uncovering  and 
destroying  the  anchorages  of  the  supporting  wires,  by  destroy- 
ing the  supporting  pier  below  the  saddle,  or  by  cutting  through 
the  wires  at  the  middle. 

In  blasting  stone  piers,  charges  should  be  at  2  L.L.R.  inter- 
vals apart  in  the  middle  of  the  pier,  computing  the  size  of  the 
charge  by  the  following  formula: 


262  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Iron  Plates. 

To  cut  iron  plates,  the  charge  must  extend  along  the  entire 
line  to  be  cut.  The  weight  of  charge  in  pounds  may  be  com- 
puted approximately  from  the  following  formulas : 

For  wrought  iron  or  soft  steel :  C  =  %Bt2. 
For  cast  iron:  C  =  %Bt2. 

B  =  length  to  be  cut  in  feet. 
t  =  thickness  of  plate  in  inches. 

Laminated  plates  should  be  treated  as  solid.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  the  contact  of  the  charge  with  the  plate  is  close 
throughout. 

Subaqueous  Demolitions. 

The  most  common  subaqueous  demolitions  are  the  blowing- 
up  of  sunken  hulks,  cutting  down  piles,  and  removing  rocks 
from  channels. 

Hulks  are  broken  up  by  exploding  large  single  charges 
inside  of  the  hulk.  For  this  purpose,  it  is  necessary  for  divers 
to  go  down  into  the  hulk  to  place  the  charge. 

Guncotton  is  a  convenient  explosive  for  under-water  demoli- 
tion, as  its  explosive  force  is  not  diminished  by  being  wet.  It 
is  only  necessary  to  arrange  in  the  charge  a  primer  of  dry  gun- 
cotton. 

If  dynamite  or  powder  is  used,  it  is  necessary  to  inclose  the 
charge  in  a  water-tight  case.  Various  common  articles  may  be 
found  to  answer  for  a  case,  such  as  beer-barrels,  iron  sewer-, 
gas-,  or  water-pipes,  lead  pipes,  rubber  tubing,  fire-hose,  etc. 

Explosive  gelatin  is  unaffected  by  water,  and,  like  guncotton, 
may  be  detonated  if  a  primer  of  the  dry  explosive  be  used. 

Single  piles  may  be  cut  by  using  an  encircling  charge,  in  the 
form  of  tubing  or  hose,  or  by  a  single  charge  held  in  place  at  the 
proper  height.  The  single  charge  may  be  fastened  to  a  long 
beam,  and  the  latter  used  to  press  the  charge  against  the  pile. 


DEMOLITIONS.  263 

If  a  row  of  piles  is  to  be  cut  down,  the  same  principle  may 
be  applied.  Fasten  an  extended  charge  to  a  heavy  plank; 
attach  the  latter  to  two  or  more  beams  or  scantling;  lower  until 
the  ends  of  the  beam  bite  into  the  bottom;  lash  the  upper  ends 
of  the  beams  to  the  top  of  the  piling,  pressing  the  charge  tightly 
up  against  the  piles. 

The  charges  for  subaqueous  demolitions  may  be  considered 
as  "  tamped  "  charges,  and  the  weight  of  charges  computed  for 
piles  by  the  same  formulas  as  given  for  hard-wood  trees  and 
stockades. 

Masonry  Tunnels. 

Either  the  crown  of  the  arch  or  the  side-walls  may  be  at- 
tacked. To  prepare  crowns  of  arches  for  demolition  shafts 
may  be  sunk  from  above  or  galleries  run  from  the  ends,  or 
openings  made  through  the  wall  or  arch  and  galleries  run 
laterally  from  these.  The  side-walls  may  be  prepared  for 
demolition  by  opening  holes  through  the  wall,  and  running 
galleries  laterally,  or  running  galleries  from  the  ends  behind 
the  walls,  as  explained  for  masonry  revetment  walls. 

If  time  is  limited,  the  charges  may  be  placed  along  the  foot 
of  each  wall  and  tamped. 

If  it  is  desired  to  break-in  several  yards  in  length  of  the 
tunnel,  "  over-charge  "•  charges  should  be  placed  some  dis- 
tance along  the  arch  or  walls  behind  them,  reckoning  the 
resistance  equal  to  two  or  three  times  the  thickness  of 
earth. 

The  part  of  a  tunnel  selected  for  destruction  should  be,  if 
possible,  some  distance  from  either  end.  Ventilating  shafts  may 
easily  be  destroyed,  and  some  tunnels  thereby  rendered  unser- 
viceable. If  the  subsoil  is  plastic,  or  contains  water  under 
pressure,  great  damage  may  be  done  by  opening  a  hole  through 
the  foundation. 


264  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Stockades  or  Barriers. 

The  charge  should  be  placed  along  the  bottom  and  tamped; 
a  single  row  of  charges  of  dynamite  or  other  explosive  will 
usually  be  sufficient.  The  strength  and  character  of  the  barrier 
must  be  considered. 

An  ordinary  stockade  or  barrier-gate  will  be  broken  in  by 
the  equivalent  of  40  to  100  Ibs.  of  black  powder  fastened  near 
the  lock.  Larger  and  stronger  fort-gates  should  be  attacked  with 
the  equivalent  of  200  Ibs.  of  powder  placed  along  its  bottom. 

Demolition  of  Railroads. 

The  destruction  of  railroads  may  be  divided  into  three  classes 
of  operations: 

1.  Those  looking  to  the  rendering  of  a  particular 
portion  of  the  line  unserviceable  for  a  limited  time. 

2.  Those  looking  to  the  total  destruction  of  the  rail- 
road, its  works  and  rolling-stock. 

3.  Hasty  demolitions  having  in  view  the  production 
of  the  maximum  amount  of  damage  at  some  point  or 
section  in  a  limited  time. 

In  classes  1  and  3, 'it  is  necessary  to  know  the  time  limit. 
A  reconnaissance  should  precede  each,  so  that  the  precise 
nature  of  the  work  to  be  done  may  be  ascertained  and  the  neces- 
sary tools,  material,  and  men  may  be  determined. 

The  railroad  may  be  within  the  enemy's  line  and  be  in  use 
by  him,  or  it  may  be  within  our  own  lines  and  its  destruction 
made  advisable,  in  order  to  prevent  its  use  by  the  enemy  at  a 
subsequent  time.  In  the  latter  case,  all  rolling-stock  and  mov- 
able property  should  be  collected  at  a  safe  interior  point. 

Buildings,  storehouses,  workshops,  etc.,  need  not  be  de- 
stroyed. The  machines  may  be  rendered  useless  and  engines 
disabled,  but  buildings  should  not  be  destroyed;  water-supplies 
especially  should  be  subjected  only  to  injury  that  may  be  re- 
paired later.  The  demolitions  should  include  lighting  and  signal 
appliances,  switches,  bridges,  tunnels,  embankments,  cuts,  etc. 

Apart   from    the   removal   and    destruction   of   particular 


DEMOLITIONS.  265 

pieces  of  property,  the  simplest  and  quickest  method  is  to 
destroy  the  rails  by  explosives.  Two  sticks  of  dynamite  or  one 
block  of  guncotton,  fastened  by  wire  or  cord  close  to  the  web 
of  a  steel  or  iron  rail  and  detonated  in  that  position,  will  com- 
pletely destroy  that  portion  of  the  rail.  A  string  of  cartridges 
may  be  applied  in  this  manner,  one  charge  to  each  rail,  placed 
in  series  and  exploded  at  the  same  time,  thus  destroying  a 
great  length  of  track  instantaneously. 

Land-mines. 

The  nomenclature  and  essential  data  connected  with  the  use 
of  explosives  in  land-mines  are  here  briefly  given; 


FIG.  23. 

Let  AB  represent  the  original  surface  of  the  ground;  (7,  the 
position  of  the  center  of  the  charge;  CL,  the  line  of  least  resist- 
ance. 

After  explosion,  the  crater  will  take  the  form  cdef,  with 
the  crest,  dbc-fgh,  about  it. 

The  line  cf  is  the  diameter  of  the  crater;  Lf  is  the  radius 
of  the  crater. 

The  radius  of  explosion  is  DC,  the  distance  through  the  earth 
to  which  the  effects  of  the  explosion  extend.  When  a  crater  is 
formed,  the  horizontal  radius  of  explosion  is  greater  than  the 
vertical  radius;  when  there  is  no  crater,  these  two  radii  are 
equal.  In  the  former  case  the  volume  included  in  the  effects 
of  rupture  is  a  spheroid;  in  the  latter  case  it  is  a  sphere. 

When  the  radius  of  explosion  is  greater  than  the  line  of 
least  resistance,  the  mine  is  an  " overcharged  mine";  when 
less,  an  "  undercharged  mine  ";  when  equal,  a  "  common  mine/' 

The  following  formulas  give  the  charge  of  black  powder,  or 
equivalent,  required  to  form  these  mine  craters : 


266  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

k 
For  overcharged  mine :    C  =^r[L.L.R.  +0.9(r -L.L.R.)]3. 

k 
For  undercharged  mine:  C=^[L.L.R.-0.9(L.L.R.-r)]3. 

k 
For  common  mine :          C  -^(L.L.R.)3. 

C  =  charge  in  pounds. 
L.L.R.  =line  of  least  resistance  in  feet, 
r  =  radius  of  the  crater  in  feet. 

k  =a  constant  depending  on  the  nature  of  the  soil.    It 
may  be  given  the  following  values : 

For  very  light  earth 0.8 

common  earth 1 . 

hard  sand 1.25 

earth  and  stones 1 . 45 

clay i  .  55 

inferior  brickwork 1 . 65 

rock  and  good  brickwork 2 . 25 

best  brickwork  and  masonry 2 . 50 

Arrangement  of  Charges. 

The  charge  maybe  applied  either  concentrated  in  one  mass, 
or  extended  in  a  long  line.  In  case  the  object  to  be  demolished 
is  a  piece  of  rectangular  shape  and  small  in  dimensions,  like  a 
beam,  or  round  like  a  tree  or  pile  or  mast,  a  modification  of  the 
latter  form  of  charge  may  be  used  by  encircling  the  beam  or 
tree  with  the  extended  charge.  A  piece  of  rubber  hose  is  a 
convenient  means  of  holding  the  explosive. 

In  case  a  piece  of  hose  is  not  available,  an  encircling  charge 
may  readily  be  arranged  by  distributing  the  explosive  on  a 
piece  of  canvas,  or  other  strong  cloth  of  suitable  length  and 
width,  and  the  cloth  rolled  over  so  as  to  form  a  long  cylinder; 
this  should  be  overwrapped  spirally  with  strong  twine  and 
lashed  snugly  about  the  object  to  be  destroyed. 

In  all  cases,  all  parts  of  the  charge  should  be  brought  into 
the  closest  possible  touch  with  each  other,  and  the  whole  charge 
with  the  surface  of  the  object  to  be  demolished. 

For  breaching  or  cutting  through  a  plane  surface  of  any 
kind,  the  charge  may  be  attached  to  a  plank,  the  parts  being 
lashed  tightly  to  the  plank  and  in  close  contact  with  each  other. 


DEMOLITIONS. 


267 


The  whole  plank  may  then  be  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 
object  to  be  demolished. 

Such  objects  as  trees  and  wooden  beams  may  be  cut  conve- 
niently by  charges  placed  in  auger-holes  bored  into  them.  The 
auger  sould  be  about  two  inches  across  its  bit.  The  hole  should 
be  bored  along  a  diameter  of  the  tree,  or  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  of  the  beam.  If  one  hole  will  contain  the  charge,  only  one 
should  be  bored;  if  one  hole  is  not  sufficient,  others  should  be 
bored,  meeting  at  the  center,  or  parallel  to  the  first.  The 
centers  of  charges  should  be  at  middle  of  the  tree  or  beam  in 
each  hole. 


TABLE  OF  RELATIVE  STRENGTHS  OF  VARIOUS  HIGH 
EXPLOSIVES. 


Name  of  Explosive. 

Order  of 
Strength. 

Explosive  gelatin. 

106    17 

Nitroglycerine.  .  .  . 

100  00 

Guncotton  

83  12 

Dynamite  No.  1.  . 

81  31 

Rackarock 

61  71 

Melinite  and.  other 

picric-acid  explosives 

50  82 

Black  gunpowder  i 

n  small  grains  

28  13 

A  stick  of  dynamite  weighs  about  6.73  ozs.  (190  grms.). 
A  disk  of  guncotton  weighs  about  10.63  oz.  (300  grms.). 
A  stick  of  explosive  gelatin  weighs  about  1.42  oz.  (40  grms.). 

ENERGY  OF  COMMERCIAL  EXPLOSIVES. 


EXPLOSIVE 

BLACK  BLASTING  POWDER.(FFF) 

S%  GRANULATED  POWDER 

40tf  STRENGTH  AMMONIA  DYNAMITE 

40/t  STRENGTH  GELATIN  DYNAMITE 

30%  STRAIGHT  NITROGLYCERIN  DYNAMITE 

60/c  STRENGTH  LOW  FREEZING  DYNAMIT 

40$  STRAIGHT  NITROGLYCERIN  DYNAMITE 

&0%  STRAIGHT  NITROGLYCERIN  DYNAMITE 

60^  STRAIGHT  NITROGLYCERIN  DYNAMITE 


#  DYNAMIC 

10  2"  ai  10  5060  70  SO  90 10 


ENERGY 


Dynamic  energy  as  represented  by  the  average  of  Trauzl  lead  block,  small 
lead  block,  and  rate  of  detonation  tests. 

Static  energy  as  represented  by  the  average  of  ballistic  pendulum  and 
pressure  gauge  tests. 


268 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


SUMMARY  OF   CHARGES  FOR   HASTY   DEMOLITIONS. 

(USING   DYNAMITE    OR   GUNCOTTON    CHARGES.) 

B=  length  of  breach  to  be  made  in  feet. 
T=  thickness  of  object  to  which  charge  is  applied  in  feet. 
t  =  thickness  in  inches  of  iron  plate. 

These  charges  are  for  untamped  conditions;  if  tamped,  they   may  be 
reduced  one-half. 

When  prepared  in  great  haste  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  increase  the 
charges  one-half. 


Object 

Lbs. 

Remarks. 

Hard-wood  trees  round.  .  .  . 

5T3 

Also    piles,    masts,    etc.,    encircling 

charge. 

Hard-  wood  beam,  rectangular 

3BT2 

B=  longer  side  of  cross-section,  en- 

circling   charge. 

Hard-wood  stockade  or  bar- 

3BT2 

B=  length  of  breach;    T=  maximum 

rier. 

thickness     of     stockade;      single 

charge. 

Earth  and  wood  stockade  or 

4  per 

This  is  for  breastworks  2  to  3  feet 

barrier. 

foot. 

thick,  made  of  earth  rammed  be- 

Iron-rail stockade  or  barrier.  . 

7  per 

tween  planks  or  railway  sleepers. 
This  made  of  iron  rails  touching  each 

foot. 

other,  placed  in  ground  on  end. 

Hard-  wood  tree,  round.  ..... 

f  T2 

T=  smallest  diameter  of  tree;  auger- 

(Soft-wood  objects  require 

hole  charge.     Hole  bored  radially, 

only  one-half  of  the  charge 

so  that  center  of  charge  shall  be  at 

required  by  the  same  object 

center  of  the  tree. 

in  hardwood.) 

Brick    and    masonry    revet- 

| BT2 

Charge    placed    behind     revetment 

ments. 

against  its  back  surface;  for  scarp- 

walls    of    forts    and    surfaces    of 

tunnels. 

Heavy  gates  

50  Ibs. 

Gates  of  forts,  armories,  etc. 

Iron  plates,  wrought  or  steel. 

t=  thickness  in  inches.      Laminated 

plates  same  as  solid. 

Detached   masonry  or  brick 

£  BT2 

If  over  2  feet  thick. 

wall,  over  2  feet  thick. 

Detached   masonry   or   brick 

2  per 

Charge   calculated  by  last   formula 

wall  less  than  2  feet  thick. 

foot. 

would  be  too  heavy,  and  simply 

blow  a  hole  through  the  wall. 

Masonry  piers  of  bridges.  .  .  . 

$  BT2 

Placed  against  the  pier  in  close  con 

tact. 

Masonry  arches  of  bridges.  .  . 

|  BT2 

Placed  along  the  crown  of  haunches. 

Field-  or  siege-guns  or  R.  F. 

li  Ibs. 

Placed  on  the  chase  near  the  muzzle. 

guns. 

4  Ibs. 

In  bore  tamped  from  the  breech  and 

muzzle  with  sand  or  earth. 

Steel  rails  

fibs. 

Lashed  tightly  to  the  web  of  the  rail. 

Inflammable  buildings  or  ma- 
terials may  be  ignited  by 

1  disk  of 
dry  gun- 

Disk  should  be  simply  ignited,  not 
detonated. 

cotton. 

Explosive  gelatin  would  require  charges  20  per  cent  less  than  those  above. 
Gunpowder  would  require  charges  4  times  greater  than  those  above. 


APPENDIX  I. 

LABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS  AND    NOTES. 


APPENDIX   I. 
LABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS. 

The  following  simple  experiments  illustrate  the  chemical  principles 

set  forth  in  Principles  of  Chemistry,  Part  I: 

i 

EXPERIMENT  No.  1. 

To  illustrate  the  formation  of  a  metallic  oxide,  and  the  influence  of 
temperature  in  the  action  of  chemical  affinity  (paragraphs  31  and  116). 

Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Blowpipe. 

2.  Small  piece  of  charcoal,  about  three  inches  long. 

3.  Gas-  or  lamp-flame. 

4.  Forceps. 

5.  Small  piece  of  iron. 

6.  Small  piece  of  copper. 

7.  Small  piece  of  zinc. 

8.  Small  quantity  of  mercury. 

Preparation:  Make  a  small  depression  near  one  end  of  the  charcoal. 
Scrape  clean  the  surface  of  charcoal  in  this  depression  and  the  sur- 
face adjacent  thereto  before  using  the  blowpipe. 

Procedure: 

(a)  Take  a  small  piece  of  iron,  brighten  it  with  a  file  or  emery-paper, 
place  it  in  the  depression  in  the  charcoal  and  bring  to  bear  on 
it  the  outer  point  of  the  blowpipe-flame.  The  bright  surface 
of  the  iron  becomes  dull,  due  to  the  combination  of  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  with  the  iron  under  the  influence  of  the  heat  of  the 
flame,  and  the  formation  thereon  of  a  film  of  black  iron  oxide. 

(&)  Repeat  (a),  using  a  piece  of  copper;  its  oxide  is  also  black. 

(c)  Repeat  (a),  using  a  piece  of  zinc;  note  the  coating  of  zinc  oxide 

271 


272  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

on  the  surface  of  the  charcoal  near  the  depression,  which  is 
yellow  when  hot  and  white  when  cold. 

(rf)  Repeat  (a),  using  a  small  globule  of  metallic  mercury;  note  the 
coating  of  mercury  oxide  on  the  charcoal,  which  is  red. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  2. 

To  illustrate  the  formation  of  metallic  hydroxides  (paragraphs  58 
to  63).1 

Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Small  piece  of  metallic  sodium. 

2.  A  porcelain  surface. 

3.  Distilled  water. 

4.  A  small  glass  tube  for  use  as  a  dropper. 

5.  A  small  quantity  of  fat  (unslaked)  lime. 

6.  A  porcelain  bowl. 

7.  Solution  of  zinc  chloride. 

8.  Solution  of  potassium  hydroxide. 

9.  Two  small  beakers. 

Procedure: 

(a)  The  formation  of  the  hydroxides  of  the  alkaline  metals 
(K,  Na,  Li,  Cs,  Rb).  Cut  a  thin  slice  of  metallic  sodium 
and  place  it  on  the  porcelain  surface.  Add  water  carefully 
with  a  dropper.  Hydrogen  is  liberated  from  the  water.  A 
slight  explosion  may  occur.  A  crusty  grayish  residue  of 
sodium  hydroxide  is  left  on  the  porcelain  surface.  The  re- 
action is  as  follows: 

Na+H20  =  NaHO+H. 

(6)  The  formation  of  the  hydroxides  of  the  alkaline-earth  metals 
(Ca,  Ba,  Sr,  Mg).  Place  a  piece  of  fat  (unslaked)  lime,  about 
the  size  of  a  bean,  in  the  porcelain  bowl.  Add  water  until 
the  lime  is  half  covered.  The  process  of  "slaking"  will  take 
place,  the  fat  lime  swelling  and  crumbling  up  and  finally 
reducing  to  a  fatty,  pasty  mass  with  evolution  of  considerable 
heat.  The  resultant  pasty  mass  is  calcium  hydroxide.  The 
reaction  is  as  follows: 

CaO+H20  =  Ca(HO)2. 

Fat-lime     Water 
1  See  also  Experiments  Nos.  22,  23,  and  24. 


LABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS.  273 

(c)  The  formation  of  the  hydroxides  of  metals  other  than  the  alka- 
line and  alkaline-earth  metals.  Take  a  small  quantity  of  the  so- 
lution of  potassium  hydroxide  in  one  of  the  beakers,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  the  solution  of  zinc  chloride  in  the  other  beaker. 
Pour  one  solution  into  the  other.  The  mixed  solution  now 
has  a  milky-white  opaque  appearance.  This  is  caused  by 
the  production  of  the  insoluble  zinc  hydroxide.  This  reaction 
also  illustrates  the  principle  of  insolubility  (paragraph  116). 
The  reaction  is  written  as  follows: 

ZnCl2      +       2KHO       =      2KC1      +      Zn(HO)2. 

Solution  Solution  of  Solution  of  Solid  precipitate 

of  zinc  potassium  potassium  of  zinc 

chloride  hydroxide  chloride  hydroxide 


EXPERIMENT  No.  3. 

To  illustrate  the  formation  of  non-metallic  oxides  (paragraph  31). 

Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Small  quantity  of  calcium  carbonate  (marble  or  chalk). 

2.  Small  quantity  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

3.  Small  quantity  of  roll  sulphur. 

4.  Porcelain  dish. 

5.  Small  quantity  of  alcohol. 

6.  Small  glass  funnel. 

7.  Small  piece  of  filter-paper,  colored  blue  by  having  been  dipped 

in  solution  of  indigo. 

8.  Nitric  acid. 

9.  Small  piece  of  tin. 

10.  About  3  feet  of  rubber  tubing  to  fit  funnel  above. 

Procedure: 

(a)  Carbon  dioxide.  Drop  a  small  quantity  of  hydrochloric  acid 
on  the  calcium  carbonate.  Effervescence  will  occur  due  to 
the  escaping  carbon  dioxide.  A  piece  of  moistened  blue  litmus 
held  in  the  escaping  gas  will  be  turned  red,  this  being  a  test 
of  the  acidity  of  the  escaping  gas.  A  lighted  match  held  in 
the  gas  is  extinguished,  exhibiting  the  power  of  carbon  dioxide 
to  extinguish  flame.  If  the  escaping  gas  is  collected  undeT 
the  glass  funnel,  the  rubber  tube  be  attached  to  the  neck  of 
the  funnel,  and  the  gas  conducted  into  some  clear  lime-water, 
the  latter  will  become  turbid,  due  to  the  formation  of  the 


274  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


precipitate  of  insoluble  calcium  carbonate.     The  reactions  are 
as  follows  : 


1.  CaCO,+2HCl=CaCl2  + 

Gas 

2.  C02  +  Ca(HO)2=CaC03  +  H2O. 

Solid 
precipitate 

(6)  Sulphur  dioxide.  Take  a  piece  of  roll  sulphur  about  the  size 
of  a  bean,  place  it  in  the  porcelain  dish,  pour  a  little  alcohol 
in  the  dish,  and  ignite  the  latter.  The  sulphur  will  soon  be 
ignited  by  the  burning  alcohol,  and  will  burn  with  a  blue 
flame,  giving  off  an  exceedingly  pungent  odor,  due  to  the  gas, 
sulphur  dioxide,  which  has  been  formed.  This  gas  has  the 
property  of  extinguishing  flame,  and  gives  the  acid  test  with 
moistened  blue  litmus.  It  also  has  the  property  of  bleaching, 
as  may  be  illustrated  by  moistening  the  blue  filter-paper  and 
placing  it  in  the  neck  of  the  glass  funnel  while  the  latter  is 
held  over  the  burning  sulphur.  The  reaction  is  as  follows  : 

S+O2  (oxygen  of  the  air)  =S02. 

(c)  Nitrogen  dioxide.  Take  a  small  piece  of  tin,  about  A  "  square, 
place  it  in  the  porcelain  dish  and  pour  on  it  some  nitric  acid. 
Nitrogen  tetroxide  (N2O4)  will  be  evolved  as  a  gas;  if  the 
reaction  does  not  readily  take  place,  dilute  the  acid  with 
water.  The  gas,  in  coming  "off,  gives  rise  to  reddish  fumes. 
The  odor  is  very  pungent.  The  reaction  is  as  follows: 


EXPERIMENT  No.  4. 

To  illustrate  the  direct  combination  of  an  acid  oxide  and  a  basic 
oxide  or  basic  hydroxide  (paragraph  32). 

Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Small  piece  of  lime. 

2.  Shallow  porcelain  dish. 

3.  Distilled  water. 

4.  Filter-paper. 

5.  Small  glass  funnel. 

6.  Short  piece  of  rubber  tubing. 

7.  Small  beaker. 

8.  Woulfe  bottle. 

9.  Calcium  carbonate  (marble,  chalk). 
10.  Hydrochloric  acid. 


LABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS.  27$ 

Procedure: 

(a)  Acid  oxide  and  basic  oxide.  Water  for  this  purpose  may  be 
considered  an  acid  oxide,  being  the  combination  of  a  non- 
metal  with  oxygen,  and  lime  the  basic  oxide.  Place  a  small 
quantity  of  lime  in  the  porcelain  dish.  Cover  it  half  with 
distilled  water.  The  phenomenon  of  "slaking"  described  in 
(6),  Experiment  No.  2,  will  take  place.  The  experiment  and 
reaction  are  in  all  respects  the  same  as  in  that  experiment. 

(6)  Acid  oxide  and  basic  hydroxide.  Take  carbon  dioxide  as  the 
acid  dioxide,  and  calcium  hydroxide  as  the  basic  hydroxide. 
Generate  the  carbon  dioxide  as  follows:  Place  a  small  quan- 
tity in  the  Woulfe  bottle.  Attach  the  rubber  tubing  to  one 
neck.  Pour  hydrochloric  acid  in  through  the  other  neck, 
then  close  the  latter  with  a  rubber  stopper.  Carbon- dioxide  gas 
will  be  generated  in  the  bottle  and  pass  out  through  the  rubber 
tubing.  Conduct  this  into  a  beaker  filled  with  lime-water 
(water  containing  calcium  hydroxide — slaked  ^me — in  solu- 
tion). The  clear  lime-water  will  become  turbid  as  soon  as 
the  carbon  dioxide  enters,  due  to  the  formation  of  insoluble 
calcium  carbonate.  The  reaction  is 

Ca  (H0)2  +  CO2 = H2O  +  CaC03. 


EXPERIMENT  No.  5. 

To  illustrate  the  formation  of  an  oxyacid  (paragraph  45). 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Apparatus  and  materials  required  for  (6),  Experiment  3. 

2.  Apparatus  and  materials  required  for  (6),  Experiment  4. 

3.  Glass  funnel. 

4.  Iron-ring  support  for  funnel. 

5.  Rubber  tubing  attached  to  neck  of  funnel. 

6.  Beaker. 

7.  Distilled  water. 

Procedure: 

(a)  Generate  SO2  as  in  (6),  Experiment  No.  3.  Support  funnel  with 
tubing  attached  over  burning  sulphur.  Conduct  SO2  through 
tubing  into  distilled  water  in  beaker.  The  water  and  S02 
unite,  forming  sulphurous  acid.  The  reaction  is 

S02  +  H20=S03H2. 


276  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

(6)  Generate  C02  as  in  (6),  Experiment  No.  4.  Conduct  through 
tubing  into  distilled  water.  A  certain  quantity  of  C02  will 
remain  in  the  water,  this  quantity  depending  on  the  pressure. 
The  resulting  liquid  is  carbonated  water.  It  is  sometimes 
called  carbonic  acid. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  6. 

To  illustrate  the  formation  of  a  hydracid  (paragraph  50). 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Solution  of  common  salt  in  a  beaker. 

2.  Sulphuric  acid. 
Procedure: 

Add  sulphuric  acid  to  solution  of  common  salt.  Hydrochloric  acid 
will  escape  as  a  gas.  The  reaction  is 

2NaCl  +  H2S04=  N  a2S04  +  2HC1. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  7. 

To  illustrate  the  property  of  an  acid  to  exchange  its  hydrogen  for  a 
metal  (paragraph  52)  . 

Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Metallic  zinc. 

2.  Silver  nitrate  solution. 

3.  Hydrochloric  acid. 

4.  Beaker. 

Procedure: 

(a)  Place  a  small  quantity  of  HC1  in  the  beaker.  Drop  in  smak 
pieces  of  zinc  until  effervescence  ceases.  The  HC1  will  have 
been  changed  to  ZnCl.  The  gas  escaping  is  hydrogen  (H). 
The  reaction  is 

=ZnCl2  +  H2. 


(6)  Place  a  small  quantity  of  HC1  in  the  beaker.  Add  silver  nitrate. 
The  clear  HC1  will  turn  white  with  insoluble  silver  chloride 
formed.  The  liquid  remaining  is  nitric  acid.  The  reaction  is 

AgN03  +  HC1  =  HNO3  +  AgCl. 

The  silver  has  displaced  the  hydrogen  in  the  acid,  and  the 
hydrogen  has  been  united  with  N03,  forming  nitric  acid. 


LABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS.  277 

EXPERIMENT  No.  8. 

To  illustrate  the  formation  of  an  ous  acid  (paragraph  47). 
Same  as  (a),  Experiment  No.  5. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  9. 

To  illustrate  the  formation  of  an  ic  acid  (paragraph  47). 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Potassium  chlorate. 

2.  Manganese  dioxide. 

3.  Ignition-tube. 

4.  Rubber  tube. 

5.  Beaker. 

6.  Sulphurous  acid  from  Experiment  No.  8. 

Procedure: 

Mix  the  KClOa  and  the  MnO2  and  place  in  ignition-tube.  Attach 
rubber  tube  to  side  neck  of  tube.  Place  cork  lightly  in  top 
of  tube.  Apply  heat  gently.  Oxygen  will  be  generated  and 
pass  out  through  rubber  tube.  Test  for  O  by  holding  a  match 
that  has  been  lighted  and  extinguished,  but  still  has  a  spark. 
The  latter  will  glow  brightly  and  reignite  the  match  in  the  O. 
Conduct  this  oxygen  into  sulphurous  acid  made  as  in  Experi- 
ment No.  8.  The  oxygen  will  combine  and  produce  HgSC^. 
The  reaction  is 

0+H2SO3=H2S04  (sulphuric  acid). 

EXPERIMENT  No.  10. 

To  illustrate  the  formation  of  an  ite  salt  (paragraph  48). 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Material  and  apparatus  for  making  S02  (a,  Experiment  No.  5).1 

2.  Sodium  carbonate  in  solution  in  water. 

1  Instead  of  generating  SO2  by  burning  sulphur,  it  may  be  obtained  from 
sulphuric  acid  as  follows:  Arrange  a  Woulfe  bottle  with  rubber  tube  on  one 
neck.  Place  some  copper  filings  on  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  Add  H2SO4 
through  the  other  neck  until  the  filings  are  well  covered.  Close  the  latter 
neck  of  the  bottle  with  a  rubber  cork.  Heat  gradually  and  carefully.  Bubbles 
of  SOa  will  soon  rise  and  pass  out  through  the  rubber  tube.  The  reaction  is 

Cu  +  2H2SO4  -  CuSO4  +  2H2O  +  SO?. 


278  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES 

Procedure: 

(a)  Place  a  small  quantity  of  the  solution  of  sodium  carbonate  in  a 
small  beaker.  Pass  the  gas  S0a  into  the  solution  of  sodium 
carbonate.  Sodium  sulphite  will  be  formed.  The  reaction  is 

Na2CO,+H20  +2S02  =2NaHSO3  +  CO.. 

Acid  sodium 
sulphite 

(6)  If  more  Na2COsbe  added  to  the  solution  of  acid  sodium  sulphite, 
the  normal  sodium  sulphite  will  be  formed.     The  reaction  is 

2NaHSO3  +  Na  2C03  =2Na2SO3  +  H2O  +  CO2. 

Normal  sodium 
sulphite 

(c)  If  the  normal  sodium-sulphite  solution  be  mixed  with  a  solution 

of  a  non-alkali  metallic  salt,  the  insoluble  sulphite  of  the  latter 
metal  will  be  precipitated.     The  reaction  is 

Na2S03  +  2AgNO3  =  2NaN03  +  Ag2SO3. 

(d)  Silver  sulphite  may  be  formed  directly  by  passing  the  gas  S0> 

into  a  solution  of  silver  nitrate,  the  reaction  is 

=Ag2S03  +  2 


EXPERIMENT  No.  11. 

To  illustrate  the  formation  of  an  ate  salt  (paragraph  49). 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Small  quantity  of  H2SO4  in  a  test-tube. 

2.  Zinc  filings. 

3.  Beaker  containing  a  little  alcohol. 

Procedure: 

Drop  zinc  filings  into  the  test-tube  containing  H2S04  until  bubbles 
cease  to  rise  (heat  gently  if  necessary).  The  H2SO4  has  been 
changed  to  ZnSO4.  The  bubbles  escaping  are  hydrogen. 
The  reaction  is 


Since  the  sulphate  of  zinc  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  it  will  be 
precipitated  as  a  solid  if  poured  into  the  beaker  containing 
alcohol. 


LABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS.  279 

EXPERIMENT  No.  12. 

To  illustrate  a  synthetical  reaction  (paragraph  27). 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Piece  of  charcoal. 

2.  Piece  of  sulphur. 

Procedure: 

(a)  Hold  charcoal  in  flame  of  lamp  or  gas.  It  will  glow  and  waste 
away,  illustrating  "combustion."  The  carbon  of  which  char- 
coal is  constituted  combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
forming  C02.  The  reaction  is 

C  +  O2  +  heat=CO2. 

(6)  Same  as  (b),  Experiment  No.  3. 

(c)  Same  as  (a),  (6),  (c),  and  (d}}  Experiment  No.  1. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  13. 

To  illustrate  an  analytical  reaction  (paragraph  27). 

Apparatus  and  Materials: 

• 

1.  Small  quantity  of  CaCO3. 

2.  Ignition-tube  with  rubber  tubing  attached  to  side  neck. 

3.  Beaker  containing  lime-water. 

Procedure: 

Pulverize  CaCO3,  and  fill  the  ignition-tube  nearly  half-full.  Close 
top  of  tube.  Heat  gradually  until  gas  passes  out  through 
rubber  tube.  This  is  CO2.  If  this  gas  be  passed  into  the 
lime-water  t  the  latter  will  become  turbid  from  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  insoluble  CaCO3.  The  reactions  are 

1.  CaCO3  +  heat    =CaO  +  C02. 

2.  C02  +  Ca(HOX=CaC03  +  H2O. 

All  nitrates  and  all  carbonates  and  sulphates,  except  those 
of  the  alkalies,  are  decomposed  by  heat,  illustrating  analytical 
reactions. 


280  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  14. 

To  illustrate  a  metathetical  reaction  (paragraph  27). 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Solution  of  silver  nitrate. 

2.  Dropper. 

3.  Solution  of  common  salt  in  a  test-tube. 

4.  Zinc  filings  in  a  test-tube. 

5.  Hydrochloric  acid. 

Procedure: 

(a)  Drop  HC1  on  the  zinc  filings.     The  H  is  displaced,  passing  off 
as  a  gas  and  leaving  ZnCl2.    The  reaction  is 

ZnCl2  +  H2. 


(6)  Drop  AgN03  into  the  solution  of  common  salt.  The  solution 
will  be  filled  with  the  white  curdy  precipitate  of  silver  chloride 
(principle  of  insolubility).  The  reaction  is 

Nad  +  AgNO3  =  AgCl  +  NaNO3. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  15. 

To  illustrate  the  influence  of  temperature  on  the  action  of  chemical 
affinity. 

See  Experiments  Nos.  1  and  12. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  16. 

To  illustrate  the  influence  of  the  liquid  state  on  the  action  of  chemical 
affinity  (paragraph  116). 

Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Solid  iron  sulphate. 

2.  Solid  barium  chloride  in  a  porcelain  dish. 

3.  Solution  of  iron  sulphate  in  a  test-tube. 

4.  Solution  of  barium  chloride. 

Procedure: 

Mix  the  solids  in  the  porcelain  dish.  'There  will  be  no  chemical 
action,  however  finely  the  substances  be  pulverized  and 
mixed.  Mix  the  solutions  of  the  same  substances  by  dropping 
a  little  of  the  barium  chloride  in  the  test-tube  containing  iron 


LABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS.  281 

sulphate.  Instantly  a  reaction  takes  place,  barium  sulphate 
being  formed  as  a  white  precipitate  (principle  of  insolubility). 
The  reaction  is 

FeSO4  +  BaCl£  =  BaSO4  +  FeCl2. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  17. 

To  illustrate  the  influence  of  insolubility  in  producing  reaction  (para- 
graph 116). 

(a)  See  last  part  of  last  experiment;  also  (6),  Experiment  No.  14. 
(6)  Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  .Woulfe  bottle  with  rubber  tube  attached  to  side  neck. 

2.  Small  quantity  of  iron  sulphide,  FeS.1 

3.  H2S04.    (dilute). 

4.  Solution  of  lead  nitrate  in  a  test-tube. 

5.  Bottle  of  distilled  water. 

Procedure: 

Place  a  small  quantity  of  powdered  FeS  in  Woulfe  bottle.  Add 
dilute  H2SO4.  Heat  gently.  H2S;  sulphydric  acid,  is  formed 
and  passes  off  as  a  gas  through  rubber  tube.  Collect  in  bottle 
of  distilled  water  until  water  will  absorb  no  more ;  this  is  sul- 
phydric-acid  solution.  Drop  a  little  of  the  sulphydric  in  the 
lead  nitrate;  instantly  the  black  insoluble  lead  sulphide  is 
formed  as  a  black  precipitate.  The  reaction  is 

H2S  (solution)  +  Pb(N03)2  =  PbS  +  2HN03. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  18. 

To  illustrate  the  influence  of  volatility  in  producing  reactions  (para- 
graph 116). 

Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Powdered  CaC03. 

2.  Powdered  NH4C1. 

3.  A  large  test-tube. 

Procedure: 

Mix  one  part  of  CaC03  with  two  parts  of  NH4C1.  Place  mixture 
in  the  test-tube.  Heat  gently.  Since  the  substances  contain 
between  them  the  constituents  of  the  volatile  salt,  ammonium 

1  FeS  may  be  produced  by  mixing  and  heating  together  iron  filings  and 
powdered  sulphur  in  a  strong  porcelain  or  earthen  dish  or  in  a  crucible. 


282  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

carbonate,  we  find  the  principle  of  volatility  operating  and 
this  salt  formed  and  passes  off  as  a  gas ;  it  may  be  condensed 
and  collected  as  a  solid  by  conducting  it  into  a  cooled  recep- 
tacle. The  reaction  is 

CaCO3  +  2NH4Cl  +  heat  =  (NH4)2CO3  +  CaCl2. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  19. 

To  illustrate  the  influence  of  the  gaseous  envelope  (paragraph  116). 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Iron  filings. 

2.  Small  still  or  other  apparatus  for  generating  steam. 

3.  Rubber  tube  attached  to  still. 

4.  Glass  tube  attached  to  other  end  of  rubber  tube. 

5.  Woulfe  bottle. 
Procedure: 

(a)  Set  up  the  still  with  some  water  in  it  over  source  of  heat.  Place 
some  iron  filings  in  the  glass  tube,  and  connect  latter  with 
rubber  tube.  The  bright  iron  filings  will  become  oxidized  to 
Fe304,  the  black  oxide  of  iron,  and  hydrogen  gas  will  pass  off 
out  of  the  free  end  of  the  glass  tube.  That  is,  iron  is  oxidized 
in  an  atmosphere  of  water-vapor. 

(6)  Substitute  for  the  still  the  Woulfe  bottle,  with  some  HC1  in  the 
bottle.  Drop  in  some  zinc  filings,  generating  H.  Leave  the 
Fe304  in  the  glass  tube.  The  H  will  now  pass  out  through 
the  rubber  tube  over  the  Fe3O4  in  the  glass  tube.  Apply  heat 
under  the  glass  tube.1  The  H  will  combine  with  the  0  of  the 
Fe3O4,  passing  off  as  H20  vapor,  leaving  Fe  behind,  thus 
reversing  the  reaction  in  (a). 

EXPERIMENT  No.  20. 

To  illustrate  catalytic  action;    that  is,  when  a  reaction  appears  to 
take  place  more  readily,  due  simply  to  the  presence  of  some  substance, 
the  latter  undergoing  no  apparent  change. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  KC1O3. 

2.  Mn02. 

3.  Woulfe  bottle  with  rubber  tube  attached. 
Procedure: 

(a)  Place  some  KC103  in  Woulfe  bottle  and  apply  heat.  Note  the 
degree  of  heat  required  to  decompose  the  KC103. 

1  Care  must  be  taken  to  allow  the  H  to  drive  off  all  the  O  in  flask  and  tube 
before  applying  heat,  otherwise  there  may  be  an  explosion 


LABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS.  283 

(6)  Place  a  mixture  of  KC1O3  and  about  one-fifth  its  weight  of 
Mn02  in  same  bottle  and  apply  heat.  Note  how  much  more 
readily  the  O  passes  off  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature. 
The  reaction  is 

KC1O3  +  MnO2  4-  heat  =  KC1  +  Mn02  +  03. 

This  is  the  usual  method  of  producing  oxygen  gas.  Test  O 
with  match  having  a  spark;  its  glow  will  be  greatly  increased 
when  0  is  coming  off. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  21. 

To  illustrate  the  principle  of  "disposing  affinity";  that  is,  a  chemical 
reaction  that  is  due  to  the  presence  of  a  third  substance  and  the  latter 
is  decomposed. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Nad. 

2.  H2S04. 

3.  Mn02. 

4.  Woulfe  bottle  with  rubber  tube  attached. 
Procedure: 

Place  a  mixture  of  NaCl  and  Mn02  in  the  Woulfe  bottle  and  add 
H2SO4.  Chlorine  gas  is  given  off,  passing  out  through  the 
rubber  tube.  If  the  experiment  is  tried  without  MnO2,  HC1  is 
produced  instead  of  Cl.  This  is  the  usual  method  of  producing 
chlorine  gas.  The  reaction  is 

2NaCl  +MnOa +2H,304  =Na2SO4  +MnSO4 +2H20  +C12. 
If  the  MnO2  is  not  present,  the  reaction  is 

NaCl  +  H2SO4  -HC1  +  NaHSOc 

EXPERIMENT  No.  22. 
To  produce  the  alkalies  (paragraph  58).  * 

(a)  Hydroxide  of  Potassium. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Solution  of  potassium  carbonate. 

2.  Clear  filtered  solution  of  slaked  lime. 

3.  Glass  funnel. 

4.  Small  beaker. 

5.  Filter-papers. 

6.  Test-tube. 

1  See  also  Experiment  No.  2. 


284  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Procedure: 

Place  a  small  quantity  of  the  solution  of  potassium  carbonate  in  a 
test-tube.  Bring  it  to  a  boil  over  the  flame.  Add  small 
quantity  of  lime-water.  Calcium  carbonate  is  precipitated  as 
a  white  finely  divided  precipitate.  Arrange  a  glass  funnel 
and  filter-paper  over  small  beaker.  Pour  the  clouded  liquid 
on  the  filter-paper.  The  clear  liquid  that  passes  through  is 
a  solution  of  potassium  hydroxide.  It  may  be  obtained  in  the 
i  solid  form  by  evaporation. 

(6)  Hydroxide  of  Sodium. 

Hydroxide  of  sodium  is  produced  in  the  same  manner,  using  sodium 
carbonate  instead  of  potassium  carbonate. 

(c)  Hydroxide  of  Ammonium. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Ammonia-gas,  manufactured  as  explained  in  Experiment  No.  29. 

2.  Distilled  water. 

Procedure: 

Pass  the  ammonia-gas  through  a  rubber  tube  into  the  distilled 
water.  The  water  will  absorb  the  gas,  and  the  resulting  liquid 
is  ammonium  hydroxide  (ammonia- water).  The  reaction  is 

NH3  (ammonia) +H2O=NH4HO. 
This  substance  exists  only  in  the  state  of  solution. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  23. 
To  produce  the  alkaline  earths  (paragraph  62).1 

(a)  Calcium  Hydroxide. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Small  portion  of  unslaked  lime. 

2.  Distilled  water. 

3.  Small  porcelain  bowl. 

Procedure: 

Place  lime  in  the  bowl  and  about  half  cover  it  with  water.  The 
process  of  slaking  will  proceed,  the  fat  lime  swelling,  crum- 
bling, and  forming  a  white  paste,  which  is  the  hydroxide  oi 
calcium.  The  reaction  is 

CaO+H2O=Ca(HO)2. 

1  See  also  Experiment  No.  2. 


LABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS.  285 

If  sufficient  water  be  added  to  the  hydroxide,  it  will  be  dis- 
solved therein,  forming  the  solution  of  calcium  hydroxide  or 
lime-water. 

(6)  Barium  Hydroxide. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Solution  of  barium  nitrate. 

2.  Solution  of  sodium  hydroxide. 

3.  Arrangements  for  filtering. 
Procedure: 

Add  the  barium  nitrate  to  the  sodium  hydroxide,  and  filter  the  result- 
ing turbid  liquid.  The  filtrate  is  a  solution  of  barium  hydrox- 
ide; the  solid  may  be  collected  by  evaporation. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  24. 
To  produce  the  hydroxides  of  other  metals  (paragraph  63).1 

(a)  Zinc  Hydroxide. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Solution  of  sodium  hydroxide. 

2.  Solution  of  zinc  chloride. 

3.  Test-tube. 

4    Filtering  arrangements. 
Procedure: 

Place  a  small  portion  of  sodium  hydroxide  in  test-tube  and  add  a 
small  quantity  of  zinc  chloride.  Zinc  hydroxide  will  be 
formed  as  a  white  gelatinous  precipitate.  The  reaction  is 

2NaHO  +  ZnCl2  =2NaCl  +  Zn(HO)2. 

(b)  Iron  Hydroxide. 

Method  of  procedure  same  as  just  explained,  substituting  iron  chloride 
for  zinc  chloride.  Iron  hydroxide  forms  a  white  precipitate.* 

EXPERIMENT  No.  25. 
To  produce  oxygen.3 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Potassium  chlorate. 

2.  Manganese  dioxide. 

3.  Test-tube  with  rubber  tube  attached. 
Procedure: 

Heat  a  mixture  of  potassium  chlorate  with  about  one-fourth,  by 
weight,  of  manganese  dioxide  in  an  ordinary  test-tube.  Oxygen 

1  See  also  Experiment  No.  2. 

3  Changing  to  green  from  the  production  of  ferroso-ferric  oxide  and  ulti- 
mately brown  by  passing  to  the  ferric  hydroxide. 
3  See  also  Experiment  No.  20. 


286  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

will  be  given  off.  Test  for  oxygen  with  a  match  with  a  spark  at 
end.  It  will  glow  and  ignite  in  the  atmosphere  of  oxygen 
immediately  above  the  test-tube.  The  reaction  is 

2KC1O3  +  MnO2  +  heat = 2KC1  +  06  +  Mn02. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  26. 
To  produce  hydrogen. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Metallic  zinc  filings. 

2.  Hyrochloric  acid. 

3.  Shallow  porcelain  dish. 

Procedure: 

To  a  small  quantity  of  zinc  filings  placed  on  a  porcelain  dish  add 
hydrochloric  acid.  Hydrogen  is  evolved  rapidly  as  a  gas.  It 
will  burn  or  explode  on  the  application  of  a  lighted  match. 
The  reaction  is 

Zn  +  2HCl=ZnCl2  +  H2. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  27. 
To  produce  chlorine. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Manganese  dioxide. 

2.  Hydrochloric  acid. 

3.  Test-tube. 

Procedure : 

Add  hydrochloric  acid  to  small  quantity  of  manganese  dioxide 
placed  in  test-tube.  Chlorine  is  given  off  as  a  greenish-yellow 
gas  having  a  very  pungent  odor.  It  has  an  acid  action  on 
blue  litmus  paper.  It  has  bleaching  properties,  and  will  bleach 
filter-paper  that  has  been  stained  in  indigo  solution.  The 
reaction  is  * 

Mn02  +  4HC1  =MnCl2 +2H20  +  C12. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  28. 

To  produce  carbonic-acid  gas  (carbon  dioxide). 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Calcium  carbonate. 

2.  Hydrochloric  acid. 

3.  Small  beaker. 


LABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS.  287 

Procedure: 

Add  hydrochloric  acid  to  a  small  quantity  of  powdered  calcium  car- 
bonate in  a  small  beaker.  Carbon  dioxide  will  be  given  off 
rapidly  as  a  gas.  The  reaction  is 

CaCO3+  2HC1=  CaCL  +  H.O  +  CO.. 

The  gas  may  be  detected  by  its  taste  and  smell.  Flame  of 
lighted  match  introduced  in  the  beaker  is  extinguished.  Gas 
has  acid  action  on  blue  litmus  paper. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  29. 
To  produce  ammonia-gas. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Powdered  ammonium  chloride. 

2.  Powdered  unslaked  lime. 

3.  Small  porcelain  dish. 

Procedure: 

Intimately  mix  small  quantity  of  the  two  substances  in  the  porcelain 
dish  and  apply  heat.  The  odor  of  ammonia-gas  (NH3)  is  soon 
detected.  Moistened  red  litmus  paper  is  turned  blue  if  held 
in  this  gas,  showing  its  alkaline  action.  The  reaction  is 


EXPERIMENT  No.  30. 
To  produce  hydrogen  sulphide. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Iron  filings. 

2.  Roll  sulphur. 

3.  Sulphuric  acid. 

4.  Porcelain  dish. 

Procedure: 

Mix  a  small  quantity  of  iron  filings  with  powdered  roll  sulphur  in 
a  porcelain  dish  and  heat  the  same.  Chemical  combination 
takes  place  between  the  iron  and  the  sulphur,  forming  iron 
sulphide  (FeS).  Add  to  this  sulphuric  acid,  and  gas  is 
evolved  which  is  hydrogen  sulphide.  It  may  be  detected 
by  its  characteristic  odor,  which  is  that  of  decomposing 
flesh.  The  reaction  is 

FeS  +  H2S04  =  FeS04  +  H2S. 


288  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  31. 
To  produce  nitric  acid. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  A  few  crystals  of  potassium  nitrate. 

2.  Small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid. 

3.  Test-tube. 
Procedure: 

Place  a  few  crystals  of  potassium  nitrate  in  the  test-tube.  On 
addition  of  sulphuric  acid,  strong  odor  of  nitric-acid  vapor 
(HNO3)  will  be  detected.  It  gives  acid  reaction  to  blue 
litmus  paper.  The  reaction  is 

KNO3  +  H2SO4  =  KHSO4  +  HNO3. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  32. 

To  produce  hydrochloric  acid. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Sodium -chloride  solution. 

2.  Sulphuric  acid. 

3.  Test-tube. 

Procedure: 

Place  a  small  quantity  of  sodium  chloride  in  a  test-tube.  On  addi- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid,  the  vapor  of  hydrochloric  acid  will  be 
given  off  (HC1),  which  may  be  detected  by  its  strong  pungent 
odor.  Gives  acid  reaction  to  litmus  paper.  The  reaction  is 

NaCl  +  H2S04  =  NaHS04  +  HC1. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  33. 

To  test  any  solution  for  a  soluble  chloride. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  A  solution  containing  an  unknown  soluble  chloride. 

2.  Small  quantity  of  silver  nitrate. 

3.  Test-tube. 
Procedure: 

Place  a  small  quantity  of  the  supposed  chloride  solution  in  the  test- 
tube  ;  add  a  drop  of  silver  nitrate :  if  there  be  a  chloride  present 
in  the  solution,  the  insoluble  silver  chloride  will  be  formed 
as  a  white  curdy  precipitate  which  turns  dark  in  the  sun- 
light, and  is  soluble  in  ammonia-water. 


LABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS.  289 

EXPERIMENT  No.  34. 

To  test  a  solution  for  the  presence  of  a  soluble  sulphate. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  A  solution  containing  an  unknown  soluble  sulphate. 

2.  A  solution  of  barium  chloride. 
Procedure: 

Place  in  the  test-tube  a  small  quantity  of  the  solution  supposed  to 
contain  the  sulphate;  add  a  few  drops  of  barium  chloride 
solution:  if  a  sulphate  be  present,  the  barium  sulphate  will 
be  formed  as  a  white  finely  divided  heavy  precipitate. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  35. 

To  test  a  solution  for  the  presence  of  a  soluble  hydroxide. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  A  solution  containing  an  unknown  hydroxide  (hydroxides  of  the 

alkaline  earths  are  soluble). 

2.  Small  portion  of  zinc  chloride  in  solution. 

3.  Test-tube. 
Procedure: 

Place  in  the  test-tube  a  small  quantity  of  the  supposed  hydroxide 
solution;  add  a  small  quantity  of  zinc   chloride:   if  an  hy 
droxide  is  present  in  the  solution,  zinc   hydroxide   will  be 
formed  as  a  white  precipitate. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  36. 

To  test  a  solution  for  the  presence  of  a  soluble  carbonate. 
The  carbonates  of  the  alkalies  are  soluble. 
Material  and  Apparatus: 

1.  A  solution  containing  a  soluble  carbonate. 

2.  Calcium  chloride. 

3.  Test-tube. 
Procedure: 

Place  a  small  quantity  of  the  supposed  soluble  carbonate  in  test-tube, 
add  a  small  quantity  of  calcium  chloride.  Insoluble  calcium 
carbonate  will  be  formed  as  a  white  precipitate. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  37. 

To  test  a  solution  for  the  presence  of  a  soluble  calcium  salt. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Small  quantity  of  a  solution  containing  the  soluble  calcium  salt. 

2.  Small  quantity  of  solution  of  ammonium  carbonate. 

3.  Test-tube. 


290  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Procedure: 

Place  a  small  quantity  of  the  supposed  soluble  calcium  salt  in  test- 
tube  ;  add  small  quantity  of  ammonium  carbonate  in  solution. 
Calcium  carbonate  will  be  produced  as  a  white  precipitate. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  38. 

To  test  a  solution  for  the  presence  of  a  soluble  nitrate. 
All  nitrates  are  soluble. 

Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Small  quantity  of  solution  of  any  nitrate. 

2.  Small  quantity  of  solution  of  ferrous  sulphate. 

3.  Small  quantity  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. 

4.  Test-tube. 

5.  Copper  filings. 

Procedure: 

(a)  Place  a  small  quantity  of  the  acid  in  the,  tube.  Mix  a  small 
quantity  of  the  ferrous  sulphate  and  the  supposed  nitrate  solu- 
tion in  a  test-tube:  add,  carefully,  a  few  drops  of  the  latter, 
allowing  it  to  run  down  the  side  of  the  tube:  if  a  nitrate  is 
present,  a  reddish-brown  or  purple  layer  will  be  formed  at  the 
junction  of  the  sulphuric  acid  and  the  other  liquid. 
(6)  Introduce,  in  test-tube  containing  a  supposed  nitrate  solution, 
a  few  copper  filings,  and  add  a  few  drops^of  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid;  apply  heat  carefully  until  solution  boils  freely: 
dark  reddish-brown  pungent  fumes  of  nitrogen  peroxide  (NO2) 
will  be  evolved  if  a  nitrate  is  present. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  39. 

Test  for  solution  containing  a  soluble  iron  salt. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  A  solution  containing  a  soluble  iron  salt. 

2.  A  solution  of  ammonium  sulphide. 

3.  Test-tube. 

Procedure: 

Place  in  the  test-tube  a  small  quantity  of  the  supposed  solution  of 
iron  salt;  add  a  small  quantity  of  the  ammonium  sulphide: 
if  iron  be  present,  the  insoluble  ferrous  sulphide  will  be 
precipitated,  first  having  a  bluish  color,  which  turns  quickly 
to  black. 


LABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS.  291 

EXPERIMENT  No.  40. 

To  make  an  acetone  colloid. 
Apparatus  and  Materials: 

1.  Small  quantity  of  acetone. 

2.  Small  quantity  of  guncotton  (cotton  that  has  been  dipped  and 

allowed  to  steep  for  a  few  minutes  in  a  mixture  of  nitric 
and  sulphuric  acid  and  afterwards  cleansed  by  thorough 
washing  in  water).1 

3.  Small  beaker. 

4.  Small  porcelain  dish. 

Procedure: 

Dissolve  a  piece  of  the  guncotton  about  the  size  of  a  lima  bean 
in  about  55  c.c.  of  pure  acetone;  dissolve  in  the  beaker; 
decant  the  solution  into  the  shallow  porcelain  dish;  evap- 
orate to  dryness  over  a  water  bath,  being  careful  to  evaporate 
only  to  dryness  and  to  avoid  burning  or  igniting.  A  thin  film 
of  transparent  colloid  will  be  left  on  the  porcelain  dish.  Note 
the  difference  in  rate  of  burning  by  igniting  first  a  small 
piece  of  raw  nitrocellulose  and  then  a  piece  of  the  dry 
colloid. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  41. 

To  make  an  ether-alcohol  colloid. 
Apparatus  and  Materials:    , 

1.  Small  quantity  of  nitrocellulose,  containing  about  12.5  per  cent 

of  N.1 

2.  Small  quantity  of  ether  and  alcohol,  in  the  proportion  of  60 

grams  of  ether  to  20  grams  of  alcohol. 

3.  Small  beaker. 

4.  Small  porcelain  dish. 

Procedure : 

Dissolve  a  piece  of  the  nitrocellulose  about  the  size  of  a  lima  bean 
in  a  portion  of  the  ether-alcohol  solution  placed  in  the  beaker. 
Allow  the  nitrocellulose  to  become  thoroughly  dissolved.  De- 
cant the  solution  to  shallow  porcelain  dish  and  evaporate 
carefully  to  dryness  over  a  water-bath,  avoiding  igniting.  A 
thin  film  of  colloid  is  left  on  the  dish.  Compare  the  rate  of 
burning  of  the  colloid  with  that  of  unchanged  nitrocellulose. 

1  See  p.  140  et  seq. 


2Q2 


NOTES   ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES, 


MATERIALS  AND  APPARATUS  FOR  LABORATORY  DESK. 

FOR    USE    IN    CONNECTION    WITH    THE    FOREGOING    EXPERIMENTS. 


Solution  of  sodium  hydroxide 

Solution  of  potassium  hydroxide 

Solution  of  calcium  chloride 

Solution  of  barium  chloride 

Solution  of  copper  sulphate 

Solution  of  silver  nitrate 

Solution  of  ammonium  sulphide 

Hydrochloric  acid 

Nitric  acid 

Commercial  sulphuric  acid 

Concentrated  sulphuric  acid 

Pure  ether 

Pure  alcohol 

Pure  acetone 

A  solution  of  ammonium  carbonate 

and  crystals 
A  solution  of  ammonium  chloride 

and  crystals 
Calcium  carbonate 
Calcium  oxide  (fat  lime) 
Metallic  iron,  filings  and  turnings 
Metallic  copper,  turnings 
Metallic  zinc,  strips 
Metallic  mercury 
Metallic  sodium 
Zinc  chloride,  solution 
Roll  sulphur 
Solution  of  indigo 
Metallic  tin 
Sodium  chloride 
Manganese  dioxide 
Iron  sulphate 
Barium  chloride 
Solution  of  lead  nitrate 
Iron  sulphide 
Potassium  chlorate 
Potassium  carbonate 
Sodium  carbonate 
Ammonia-water 


Barium  nitrate,  solution 

Sodium  nitrate,  solution 

Iron  chloride 

Potassium  nitrate 

Silver  nitrate 

Ammonium  sulphide 

Nitrocellulose 

A  piece  of  charcoal  about  3"  long 

and  1"  square  cross-section 
Platinum  foil  l$"xl" 
Platinum  wire  3"  long 
1  test-tube  rack 
1  test-tube  cleaner 

test-tube  stand 
1  glass  funnel 

shallow  porcelain  dish 

porcelain  crucible 

porcelain  mortar  and  pestle 

Woulfe  bottle 
6  test-tubes,  assorted 
3  beakers,  assorted 

1  iron  tripod 

2  watch-crystals 
1  blowpipe 

1  pair  of  tongs 

1  pair  of  forceps 

1  spatula 

1  glass  dropper 

1  glass  rod 

1  test-tube  holder 

1  asbestos  pad 

1  water-bottle  for  distilled  water 

Filter-papers 

Litmus  papers 

Source  of  heat :  gas  or  lamp 

Rubber  tubing 

Iron  ring-support 

Ignition-tube 

Small  still 


LABORATORY  NOTES.  293 


LABORATORY   NOTES. 

Throw  all  solid  waste  materials  in  the  earthen  crocks  pro- 
vided at  each  desk,  and  not  in  the  sinks. 

In  rinsing  apparatus  containing  acids,  allow  the  water  to 
run  for  a  moment  to  dilute  the  acids  and  thereby  protect  the 
pipes. 

When  through  with  a  source  of  heat,  extinguish  it. 

Always  keep  the  reagent-bottles  in  their  proper  places,  with 
labels  to  the  front. 

In  using  a  liquid  reagent,  grasp  the  stopper  first  between 
the  little  finger  and  palm  of  the  hand,  then  grasp  the  bottle 
between  the  thumb  and  other  fingers  of  the  same  hand, 
the  label  of  the  bottle  being  against  the  palm  of  the  hand. 
Pour  out  slowly  and  carefully  the  smallest  amount  of  reagent 
possible  for  the  reaction  and,  at  the  last,  touch  the  lip  of  the 
bottle  against  the  edge  of  the  vessel,  so  that  the  last  drop  will 
not  run  down  the  sides  of  the  bottle.  Replace  the  stopper  and 
put  back  the  bottle  at  once.  Neither  bottle  nor  stopper  should 
ever  be  put  on  the  table. 

Dry  reagents  and  the  more  unusual  wet  reagents  should  be 
kept  on  a  separate  stand  for  general  use. 

All  glass  and  porcelain  articles  should  be  cleansed  imme- 
diately after  using,  and  in  no  case  left  or  put  away  dirty. 

In  performing  experiments  which  give  rise  to  pungent  or 
offensive  fumes,  such  as  N02,  SH2,  etc.,  go  to  the  hood  and 
perform  the  experiment  there. 

On  leaving  the  laboratory,  be  careful  to  label  distinctly  any 
solution  or  substance  which  is  to  be  further  examined  or  used, 
and  mark  the  slip  with  the  word  "  preserve  "  and  your  name. 

Leave  the  desk  in  order  so  that  the  attendant  may  dust  it 
and  clean  it. 

If  a  solution  has  to  be  put  aside  even  for  a  few  minutes, 
label  it  over  your  initials. 

Laboratory  notes  may  be  entered  either  in  rough  form  on 


294  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

a  pad  to  be  entered  later  in  the  note-book,  or  directly  in  the 
note-book.  The  latter  is  the  better  method.  Time  is  too 
valuable  to  spend  it  in  copying. 

Lecture -notes  in  abbreviated  form  must,  of  course,  first  be 
taken  down  in  rough  and  then  expanded  into  the  note-book, 
but  a  distinction  should  be  drawn  between  mere  copying  and 
expansion  of  abbreviated  notes. 

When  a  glass  stopper  sticks  tightly,  heat  the  neck  gently 
and  gradually,  keeping  the  stopper  entirely  out  of  the  flame. 
Then  press  the  stopper  gently  from  side  to  side.  While  heat- 
ing the  neck,  turn  it  round  and  round  in  the  flame. 

Test-tubes  are  little  cylinders  of  thin  glass,  closed  at  one 
end,  in  which  most  tests  and  liquid  reactions  are  conducted. 
They  vary  in  size  from  4  to  8  inches  long  and  from  J  to  f  inch 
in  diameter.  They  should  not  be  so  large  in  diameter  that  the 
open  end  may  not  be  closed  by  the  thumb.  They  may  be  used 
for  heating  liquids  in  a  flame,  holding  either  in  the  bare  fingers, 
or,  if  too  hot,  in  a  test-tube  holder. 

Two  precautions  must  always  be  observed  in  heating  test- 
tubes  and  all  glass  vessels. 

1.  The  outside  should  be  wiped  perfectly  dry  just  before 

placing  in  the  flame. 

2.  The  tube  should  be  brought  gradually  into  the  flame  and 

moved  in  and  out  and  rolled  between  the  finger  and 
thumb,  so  that  the  heating  shall  be  gradual  and  uniform. 

The  reactions  which  take  place  in  test-tubes,  and  the  boiling 
of  liquids  therein,  often  cause  portions  of  the  liquid  to  be 
ejected.  To  guard  against  accident  from  this  cause,  the  opera- 
tor should  never  hold  the  mouth  of  the  tube  toward  himself  or 
another  person  near  him. 

Test-tubes  are  cleaned  by  a  test-tube  cleaner,  consisting  of  a 
bunch  of  bristles  caught  between  twisted  wires  and  a  small 
piece  of  sponge  held  at  the  end,  or  a  round  end  of  bristles. 

Test-tubes  are  kept  in  racks,  a  set  of  holes  being  provided 
for  tubes  in  use,  and  a  set  of  draining-pegs  for  those  not  in  use. 


LABORATORY  NOTES.  295 

These  racks  usually  contain  a  dozen  tubes.    The  tubes  should 
be  thoroughly  washed  before  placing  on  the  pegs. 

Flasks  are  bottle-shaped  glass  vessels  having  a  neck  and 
globe;  the  latter  may  have  a  round  or  flat  bottom.  They  are 
used  for  boiling  liquids  in,  and  are  often  placed  in  iron  ring 
supports  over  the  source  of  heat.  The  same  rules  as  to  heating 
and  cleaning  apply  to  these  as  to  test-tubes.  In  arranging 
flasks  for  experiment,  be  careful  to  allow  sufficiently  large  exit  for 
gases  generated — an  explosion  of  a  flask  is  liable  otherwise. 

Beakers  are  thin  glass,  open,  tumbler-shaped  vessels  with  a 
flare  edge  and,  often,  a  small  spout.  They  are  used  chiefly  to 
receive  filtered  liquids,  or  for  reactions  on  a  larger  scale  than 
in  test-tubes. 

Glass  funnels  should  be  thin  and  light  and  have  the  throat 
cut  off  obliquely.  Their  sides  incline  at  60°,  which  angle  permits 
a  filter-paper  folded  twice  to  fit  exactly.  They  are  used  for 
transferring  liquids  from  one  vessel  to  another,  and  for  holding 
filter-papers.  Agate-iron,  iron,  and  porcelain  funnels  are  also 
furnished  for  rougher  work. 

Some  funnels  are  arranged  with  corrugations  or  cut  channels 
specially  to  accelerate  filtering. 

Filtering-papers  are  used  to  separate  the  precipitates  from 
the  liquids  in  which  they  were  formed;  the  latter,  after  separa- 
tion, is  often  called  the  filtrate.  A  good  filter-paper  should  be 
porous  enough  to  filter  rapidly  and  yet  sufficiently  close  in 
texture  to  retain  the  finest  powder.  The  paper  should  be  strong 
enough  to  bear  when  wet  the  pressure  of  the  liquid  poured  on 
it.  Good  filter-paper  should  be  free  from  all  salts  and  as  near 
pure  cellulose  as  is  possible;  when  burned,  it  should  leave  a 
very  small  proportion  of  ash.  White  paper  is  more  likely  to 
fulfill  these  conditions  than  the  colored  varieties. 

Filter-paper  comes  in  sheets,  but  cut  filter-papers  are  sup- 
plied as  a  rule.  The  separate  papers  are  in  circular  form. 

,  Small  papers  and  funnels  should  be  used  in  experiments.  A 
paper  about  three  inches  in  diameter  is  the  most  convenient 
size,  except  for  reactions  involving  large  quantities  of  materials. 


296  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

A  filter  is  prepared  for  placing  in  a  funnel  as  follows: 

1.  Fold  across  on  one  diameter. 

2.  Fold  each  end  of  semicircle  back  on  45°  radius. 

3.  Fold  each  of  the  45°  folds  in  its  middle. 

4.  Open  out  between  the  folds. 
Or  a  second  method  is  as  follows  : 

1.  Fold  across  a  diameter  as  before. 

2.  Fold  across  the  semicircle  on  the  90°  radius. 

3.  Open  out  3  layers  on  one  side  and  1  on  the  other. 
The  first  method  is  the  better,  as  it  gives  quicker  filtration. 

Filter-papers  are  placed  in  funnels  so  as  to  fit  closely  to  the 
sides,  and  after  they  are  in  place  they  are  wetted  down  with 
distilled  water,  using  a  wash-bottle  for  this  purpose.  The  rate 
of  filtering  may  be  increased  by  using  larger  filter-papers  cr 
by  lengthening  the  throat  of  the  funnel  and  letting  it  dip  down 
into  the  filtrate. 

Strong  acid  or  alkaline  solutions  should  be  filtered  through 
asbestos  wool  placed  in  the  throat  of  the  funnel. 

A  filter-paper  of  less  than  2  inches  in  diameter  may  be 
placed  directly  in  the  mouth  of  a  test-tube,  and  those  between 
2  and  3  inches  may  be  placed  in  a  funnel  and  the  funnel  placed 
directly  in  the  mouth  of  the  test-tube  without  other  support. 

When,  however,  a  large  quantity  of  liquid  is  to  be  filtered, 
larger  papers  are  necessary  and  larger  funnels;  these  latter  are 
supported  in  stands  or  rings  independently  of  the  vessel  arranged 
to  receive  the  filtrate.  A  beaker  or  a  porcelain  dish  may  be 
arranged  to  receive  the  filtrate.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the 
lowest  point  of  the  throat  of  the  funnel  touches  the  side  or  edge 
of  the  vessel,  in  order  that  the  liquid  passing  through  may  not 
fall  in  drops,  but  run  quietly  down  the  side  without  splashing. 

Porcelain  evaporating-dishes  of  various  sizes  are  used.  These 
dishes  will  bear  the  heat  of  a  lamp-  or  gas-flame  without 
cracking.  The  best  are  the  "Berlin"  dishes  glazed  on  both 
sides.  With  these  dishes  a  solution  may  be  evaporated  to  dry- 
ness,  or  even  to  ignition  over  the  open  flame  of  a  lamp-  or  gas- 
burner.  It  is  well,  however,  to  support  the  dishes  in  such  cases 


LABORATORY   NOTES.  297 

on  a  piece  of  iron  wire  gauze;  otherwise  the  dish  may  be  sup- 
ported on  a  small  wire  triangle. 

Porcelain  crucibles  are  made  of  very  thin  porcelain  and 
may  be  subjected  to  even  higher  heat  than  the  dishes.  They 
are  made  with  covers.  They  are  supported  over  the  flame  by 
small  wire  triangles. 

Both  porcelain  dishes  and  crucibles  should  be  brought  gradu- 
ally to  the  full  heat. 

Two  kinds  of  lamps  are  used — the  common  spirit-lamp,  and 
the  circular-wick  lamp,  also  known  as  the  Berzelius  lamp.  The 
former  is  used  for  ordinary  heating  of  test-tubes,  etc.;  the 
latter  when  a  higher  temperature  is  required  and  a  larger  flame, 
especially  for  water-  and  sand-baths,  for  evaporation,  and 
ignition  of  residues.  Spirit-lamps,  when  not  in  use,  should  be 
covered  over  to  prevent  evaporation. 

Supports. — Several  forms  of  supports  are  used  in  heating: 

1.  The  iron  tripod,  consisting  of  a  ring  to  which  three  legs 

are  attached.  The  flask,  dish,  or  crucible  is  supported 
on  this  ring  and  the  lamp  is  placed  below.  The  proper 
height  is  given  by  wooden  blocks,  either  blocking  up 
the  tripod  or  the  lamp. 

2.  The  iron-rod  support  consists  of  an  iron  rod  attached  to 

a  heavy  cast-iron  base.  Several  rings  of  different  diam- 
eters are  secured  to  the  rod  by  binding-screws,  and 
may  be  adjusted  vertically  and  laterally,  like  the  stand 
of  the  Berzelius  lamp. 

3.  Iron-wire  gauze — a  piece  about  6  inches  square. 

4.  Iron-wire  triangle — three  pieces  of  iron  wire  formed  into 

an  equilateral  triangle,  with  the  wires  twisted  together 

at  the  vertices  for  a  distance  of  an  inch  or  two. 

A  water-bath1  consist  of  a  copper  vessel  with  a  set  of  covers 

of  different  diameters.     It  is  used  to  evaporate  at  moderate 

heat,  or  to  dry  precipitates  or  other  substances  which  must  be 

kept  below  a  certain  temperature.     This  temperature  is  fixed 

by  the  boiling-point  of  the  liquid  placed  in  the  bath.    If,  for 

1  Other  liquids  than  water  may  be  used.  The  bath  takes  its  uame,  in  any 
case,  from  the  liquid  used.  By  taking  liquids  of  different  boiling-points  dif- 
ferent constant  temperatures  may  be  had. 


298  NOTES   ON"  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

example,  an  aqueous  eolation  is  to  be  evaporated  without 
ebullition,  it  must  not  rise  above  the  boiling-point  of  water,  ncr 
permitted  quite  to  reach  that  point.  To  accomplish  this,  fill  the 
bath  two-thirds  full  of  water,  place  on  it  those  particular  cover 
rings  that  will  permit  the  greater  part  of  the  dish  containing 
the  solution  to  be  below  the  cover  but  not  in  the  water  of  the 
bath.  Support  the  bath  on  either  the  tripod  or  ring  support 
and  apply  the  heat.  The  dish  holding  the  solution  is  thus 
heated  by  an  atmosphere  of  steam,  and  the  temperature  will 
not  exceed  212°  F.  The  water  in  the  bath  must  never  be 
allowed  to  boil  away.  There  are  several  modifications  of  the 
water-bath. 

If  a  gradual  and  uniform  temperature  higher  than  the 
water-bath  be  desired,  this  may  be  accomplished  by  the  sand- 
bath.  This  consists  simply  of  a  shallow  dish  or  pan  in  which 
sand  is  placed,  and  the  body  to  be  heated  is  placed  in  a  dish 
on  this  sand.  The  thickness  of  the  sand  layer  regulates  the 
temperature  for  a  given  flame. 

The  blowpipe  is  used  to  oxidize  and  deoxidize  samples  and 
to  give  a  high  degree  of  heat.  Deoxidization  is  often  called 
"reduction." 

In  using  the  blowpipe,  the  air  should  be  forced  from  the 
lungs  into  the  mouth-cavity,  distending  the  cheeks,  and  the  air 
then  forced  through  the  blowpipe  by  the  muscles  of  the  cheeks. 
A  steady  uniform  pressure  may  thus  be  maintained. 

For  oxidization  purposes  the  sample  should  be  held  just 
beyond  the  tip  of  the  outer  luminous  flame;  for  reducing  pur- 
poses it  should  be  held  at  the  tip  of  the  inner  blue  flame.  The 
hottest  part  of  the  blowpipe  flame  is  between  the  luminous  and 
blue  flame;  for  melting  metals,  and  when  a  high  degree  of  heat 
is  desired,  the  sample  should  be  held  at  this  point. 

Specimens  may  be  supported  and  held  before  the  blowpipe 
either  on  charcoal,  on  platinum-foil,  or  on  a  platinum  loop. 

(a)  On  charcoal :  Take  a  piece  of  charcoal  about  3"  X  V  X 
V .  Near  the  end  of  one  of  the  longer  faces  cut  with 
knife  or  scraper  a  small  depression  about  J"  diame- 
ter and  J"  deep.  Place  the  sample  in  this  depression. 


LABORATORY  NOTES.  299 

Hold  the  charcoal  between  the  thumb  and  foref  nger 
of  the  left  hand,  slanting  at  about  30°  downward,  the 
sample  being  at  the  lower  end.  Present  the  sample 
to  the  blowpipe  in  this  position. 

(6)  On  platinum-foil:  Take  a  piece  of  platinum-foil  about 
1J"  by  1".  Clean  its  surface  with  moist  sand.  If 
wrinkled,  rub  out  the  wrinkles  on  the  bottom  of  the 
agate  mortar,  using  the  agate  pestle.  Bend  over 
one  corner  slightly.  Take  hold  of  this  corner  with  the 
forceps.  Place  the  sample  on  the  foil.  Present  to 
the  flame,  holding  the  forceps  in  the  left  hand, 
(c)  Platinum  wire  loop:  Fuse  a  fine  platinum  wire  to  the 
end  of  a  glass  rod.  Straighten  out  all  kinks  in  the 
wire  by  making  a  single  loop  over  a  round  lead-pencil 
or  other  similar  article,  and  pulling  the  pencil  along 
the  wire  without  turning.  Make  a  small  circular  loop 
at  the  end  of  the  wire  about  TY'  in  diameter.  Heat 
the  loop  to  red  heat,  and  wipe  after  cooling  with 
clean  filter-paper.  Prepare  the  sample  with  proper 
fluxes,  place  it  on  the  loop  and  present  to  the  blow- 
pipe. 

Never  heat  any  metal  or  any  substance  from  which  a  metal 
can  be  reduced  on  platinum,  as  the  latter  forms  alloys  with 
other  metals,  which  alloys  have  a  lower  fusing-point  than  plati- 
num and  injure  its  properties  otherwise.  The  alkaline  sulphides 
and  hydroxides  also  act  on  platinum.  It  is  dissolved  by  aqua 
regia  and  chlorine-water. 

Wash-bottle. — This  is  a  large  bottle  of  distilled  water  for 
general  use  in  carrying  out  experiments.  It  is  used  particu- 
larly for  diluting  specimens  in  test-tubes,  for  wetting  down 
filter-papers  so  they  will  adhere  closely  to  the  sides  of  funnels, 
for  washing  down  precipitates  from  the  sides  of  vessels,  and  for 
washing  precipitates.  Two  tubes  enter  the  bottle  through  a 
rubber  cork.  One  is  straight  and  projects  about  4"  above  the 
cork,  and  the  other  at  a  point  about  1"  abovs  the  cork  is  bent 
sharply  downward  at  an  angle  of  about  45°,  and  terminates 


300  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

at  about  4"  from  the  bend  in  a  pointed  aperture.  The  first 
tube  stops  inside  of  the  bottle  above  the  surface  of  the  water, 
the  bent  tube  extends  inside  the  bottle  well  down  to  near  its 
bottom. 

The  water  is  poured  out  through  the  straight  tube,  holding 
the  bent  tube  uppermost. 

By  blowing  down  the  straight  tube,  using  some  little  force 
in  the  act,  the  water  is  forced  up  through  the  bent  tube  and 
out  at  the  pointed  aperture. 

Glass  Tubing. — Various  sizes  of  glass  tubing  are  used;  the 
larger  sizes  for  joining  parts  of  apparatus,  in  connection  with 
rubber- tubing ;  the  smaller  sizes  for  exits  through  corks  from 
bottles  and  large  test-tubes.  A  piece  of  small-caliber  glass  tube 
is  used  as  a  dropper.  The  tube,  when  used  for  this  purpose, 
must  be  perfectly  clean.  It  is  inserted  in  the  reagent-bottle, 
the  reagent  rises  in  the  tube,  the  end  of  the  finger  is  placed  over 
the  top  and  the  tube  then  withdrawn,  bringing  with  it  the  small 
quantity  of  reagent  held  in  the  tube. 

Ordinary  glass  tubing  may  be  cut  in  the  simplest  way  by 
placing  it  lengthwise  in  a  V  trough,  the  point  to  be  cut  resting 
just  beyond  the  trough;  passing  a  diamond  around  at  the  point 
with  one  hand,  holding  the  tube  tightly  with  the  other,  then 
grasping  the  tube  firmly  with  both  hands  on  either  side  of  the 
cut  and  near  it,  break  the  tube  at  the  cut  by  turning  the  hands 
evenly,  upward  and  outward,  using  the  necessary  force. 

The  sharp  corners  of  the  ends  of  glass  tubing  may  be  rounded 
by  holding  in  the  Bunsen  or  alcohol  flame.  This  should  always 
be  done  before  attempting  to  insert  a  tube  in  corks  or  in  rubber 
tubing,  as  the  tube  inserts  much  more  easily  if  the  corners  are 
rounded.  Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  change  the  size  of 
the  orifice.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  bring  the  very  outer  edges 
to  a  good  red  heat  and  rub  a  second  heated  rod  gently  over 
these  edges. 

Very  thin  glass  tubing,  which  cannot  be  cut  as  described 
above,  may  be  cut  by  filing  a  slight  cut  at  the  point,  then  apply 
gradually  a  hot  point  progressively  around  the  tube,  starting 


LABORATORY  NOTES.  301 

at  the  file-cut.  It  may  be  necessary  sometimes  to  chill  the  tube 
at  the  file-cut  by  placing  it  in  cold  water  or  ice  for  a  minute  or 
so;  and  then  wiping  dry,  before  applying  the  heated  point. 

Glass  tubes  are  bent  by  heating  them  over  a  flame  until 
plastic,  then  bent  carefully  with  force  applied  very  slowly;  only 
the  heat  necessary  should  be  used. 

To  close  a  glass  tube,  heat  the  end  until  plastic,  press  together 
opposite  points  of  circumference  until  they  meet,  make  weld 
complete,  then  shape. 

To  form  a  bulb  in  a  glass  tube,  heat  the  tube  in  the  point 
at  which  it  is  desired  to  have  the  bulb  until  the  glass  is  plastic 
at  that  point.  Blow  through  the  tube,  using  sufficient  force  to 
cause  the  plastic  glass  to  expand  to  the  size  desired. 

To  make  an  opening  in  the  side  of  a  glass  tube,  heat  the 
tube  at  the  point  until  the  glass  there  is  plastic.  Perforate  the 
side  with  a  pointed  rod,  open  the  perforation  to  the  size  desired, 
round  off  and  smooth  the  edges. 

Rubber  tubing  of  various  sizes  is  used  to  connect  the  glass 
and  metal  parts  of  apparatus.  There  is  a  great  advantage  in 
this  means  of  connection  by  reason  of  the  pliability  of  the  tub- 
ing, the  air-tight  joints  that  are  made,  and  the  fact  that  alkalies 
and  dilute  acids  do  not  act  on  rubber. 

The  cork-borer  consists  of  a  nest  of  metal  tubes  of  various 
sizes,  with  one  end  bevelled  to  a  cutting  circular  edge.  It  is 
used  to  bore  holes  through  rubber  and  cork  stoppers  for  glass 
tubes. 

In  putting  a  glass  tube  through  a  bored  stopper,  see  that  the 
edges  of  the  tube  have  been  rounded  by  heating,  grasp  the 
tube  firmly,  close  to  the  stopper,  press  in  easily  and  directly 
along  the  axis  of  the  tube  with  a  screw  motion.  Wet  the  tube 
with  alcohol  or  with  soap-suds,  if  it  moves  with  great  difficulty. 
Avoid  lateral  pressure.  Do  not  hold  the  body  of  a  funnel  in 
forcing  the  neck  through  a  stopper  nor  a  bent  tube  at  the 
bend. 

Rubber  stoppers  are  used  when  absolutely  air-tight  closing  of 
bottles  is  important.  They  may  be  perforated  for  glass  tubes 


302  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

by  a  brass  cork-borer;  the  latter  should  be  moistened  with 
alcohol  to  facilitate  the  process.  They  have  a  further  advantage 
over  cork  stoppers  by  reason  of  the  non-action  of  alkalies  and 
weak  acids. 

Sheet  rubber  is  used  to  make  tight  joints  between  glass 
tubes  of  different  sizes,  or  between  the  neck  of  a  bottle  or  a 
flask  and  a  large  glass  tube  entering  it. 

Cork  stoppers  should  be  softened  by  rolling  or  squeezing 
before  using.  There  is  difficulty  in  finding  perfectly  round 
corks;  eccentric  parts  may  be  removed  by  using  a  fine  flat 
file.  The  size  of  corks  may  be  reduced  somewhat  by  squeezing 
or  filing  or  both. 

Double-neck  bottles  are  convenient  for  generating  gases;  one 
neck  being  used  for  the  reagent,  and  the  other,  with  glass  tube 
and  rubber  tubing  attached,  for  transferring  the  gas  generated. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  mortars  in  common  use:  (1)  an 
iron  mortar,  for  heavy  material  requiring  great  strength  to 
pulverize;  (2)  porcelain  mortars,  for  ordinary  solid  reagents; 
(3)  agate  mortars,  for  minerals  and  reagents  having  high 
degree  of  hardness;  (4)  diamond  mortar,  consisting  of  small 
steel  cylinder,  anvil,  and  piston,  in  which  very  hard  and  tough 
materials  are  pulverized  or  broken  before  using  the  agate  mortar. 

Spatulas  are  thin,  knife-like  blades  made  of  steel,  horn,  or 
porcelain.  They  are  used  in  handling  solid  reagents  and  samples. 

Watch-glasses  are  used  in  pairs,  with  a  suitable  metal  clasp 
to  hold  them  tightly  together,  in  holding  samples  for  weighing, 
drying,  and  for  preserving  them  safely  from  loss  or  change 
during  experimentation. 

The  clothing  should  be  covered  by  overalls  or  aprons  during 
laboratory  work.  In  case  strong  acid  gets  on  the  clothing  or 
skin,  it  should  be  neutralized  at  once  with  ammonia- water  or 
other  strong  base,  or  washed  for  some  time  in  running  water. 


APPENDIX  II. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  TRANSPORTATION  OF 
EXPLOSIVES  BY  FREIGHT  AND  EXPRESS. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES  BY  FREIGHT  ....  307 

General  notice 307 

General  rules 308 

Section  1 310 

Information  and  definitions 310 

Grouping 310 

Group  1. — Forbidden  explosives 310 

Group  2. — Acceptable  explosives 311 

Section  2 313 

Packing,  marking,  and  certifying  acceptable  explosives 313 

Samples  of  explosives  together 314 

Low  explosives  and  black  powder 314 

High  explosives 315 

Smokeless  powder  for  cannon 317 

Smokeless  powder  for  small  arms 317 

Fulminates 317 

Small-arms  ammunition 318 

Ammunition  for  cannon 318 

Explosive  projectiles 319 

Blasting  caps 319 

Detonating  fuses 320 

Primers,  percussion  and  time  fuses 320 

Common  fireworks 321 

Special  fireworks 321 

Safety  fuse,  cordeau  detonant,  and  safety  squibs 322 

Shipping  order 322 

List  of  shipping  names 322 

Section  3 323 

Rules  for  handling 323 

Loading  in  car 324 

Waybilling 325 

Shipments  from  connecting  lines 327 

Disposition  of  injured,  condemned,  and  astray  packages ....  327 

Selection  and  preparation  of  cars 328 

Dangerous  explosives 328 

Certified  car  placarded  "  Explosives  " 328 

Less    dangerous    explosives    in   car    placarded    "  In- 
flammable " 329 

305 


306  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  EXPLOSIVES  BY  FREIGHT. — Continued. 
Section  3. — Continued. 

PAGE 

Relatively  safe  explosives  in  car  without  placards ....  330 

Placarding  of  cars  and  certification  of  contents 331 

"  Explosive  "  placard 332 

"  Inflammable  "  placard 332 

Handling  cars  containing  explosives 333 

In  case  of  a  wreck 335 

REGULATIONS    FOR  THE  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES  AND  OTHER 

DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  BY  EXPRESS 336 

General  notice 336 

General  rules 337 

Information  and  definitions 338 

Grouping 338 

Group  1. — Forbidden  articles 338 

Group  2. — Acceptable  explosives 339 

Definitions  of  acceptable  explosives 340 

Packing  and  marking  of  acceptable  explosives 341 

Packing    and    marking    of    small-arms    ammunition, 

primers,  fuses,  safety  fuse,  and  safety  squibs 342 

Packing  and  marking  of  fireworks 343 

ACT  OF  MARCH  4,  1909,  EFFECTIVE  JANUARY  1;  1910 345 


REGULATIONS  FOR  THE   TRANSPORTATION   OF 
EXLOSIVES  BY  FREIGHT. 


Prescribed  under  act  of  March  4,  1909.  Originally  formulated  and  published  January  15, 
1910,  effective  90  days  thereafter.  Revision  formulated  and  published  July  2,  1914, 
effective  October  1,  1914,  and  superseding  the  tegulations  published  January  1,  1912. 


GENERAL  NOTICE. 

1401.  (a)  As  the  use  of  explosives  is  essential  to  various  business 
activities  throughout  the  country,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  interstate  railroad 
carriers  to  accept  and  transport  such  explosives  under  these  regulations. 
When  local  conditions  make  the  acceptance,  transportation,  or  delivery 
unusually  hazardous,  local  restrictions,  as  provided  by  paragraph  1429 
herein,  may  be  imposed. 

(6)  It  is  also  the  duty  of  carriers  and  shippers  to  make  these  regu- 
lations effective  and  to  thoroughly  instruct  their  employees  in  relation 
thereto. 

1402.  The  Bureau  for  the  Safe  Transportation  of  Explosives  and 
other  Dangerous  Articles,  hereinafter  called  Bureau  of  Explosives,  organ- 
ized by  the  railways  under  the  auspices  of  the  American  Railway  Associ- 
ation, is  an  efficient  bureau  in  charge  of  an  expert  chief  inspector.    This 
bureau  will  make  inspections  and  conduct  investigations,  and  will  confer 
with  manufacturers  and  shippers  with  a  view  to  determining  what  speci- 
fications and  regulations  will  within  reasonable  limits  afford  the  highest 
degree  of  safety  in  packing  and  preparing  these  dangerous  articles  for 
shipment  and  in  transporting  the  same.     The  Commission  will  seek  to 
avail  itself  of  the  expert  knowledge  thus  developed,  and  in  formulating 
amendments  to  these  regulations  or  specifications  supplemental  thereto, 
while  not  bound  thereby,  will  give  due  weight  to  such  expert  opinions. 

1403.  The  Commission  will  make  further  provision  as  occasion  may 
require  for  new  explosives  not  included  in  or  covered  by  the  following 
regulations. 

1404.  These  regulations   apply  to   all  shipments  of  explosives  as 
defined  herein,  including  carrier's  material  and  supplies. 

307 


308  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

GENERAL  RULES. 

1421.  Unless  specifically  authorized  by  these  regulations,  explosives 
must  not  be  packed  in  the  same  outside  packages  with  each  other  or 
with  other  articles. 

1422.  Explosives,  when  offered  for  shipment  by  rail,  must  be  in 
proper  condition  for  transportation  and  must  be  packed,  marked,  loaded, 
stayed,  and  handled  while  in  transit  in  accordance  with  these  regulations. 
All  packages  of  less-than-carload  shipments  must  also  be  plainly  marked 
on  the  outer  covering  or  boxing  (outside  package)  with  the  name  and 
address  of  the  consignee. 

1423.  Except  on  through  bills  of  lading  to  a  foreign  destination, 
shipments  of  dangerous  explosives  as  named  in  paragraph  1661  must 
not  be  accepted  when  consigned  "  order  notify." 

1424.  Empty  boxes  or  kegs  previously  used  for  high  explosives  are 
dangerous  and  must  not  be  again  used  for  shipments  of  any  character. 
Empty  boxes  which  have  been  used  for  the  shipment  of  other  explosives 
than  high  explosives  must  have  the  old  marks  thoroughly  removed 
before  being  used  for  the  shipment  of  other  articles.     Empty  metal  kegs 
which  have  been  used  for  the  shipment  of  black  powder  which  was  not 
contained  in  an  interior  package  must  not  be  again  used  for  shipment 
of  any  explosive,  and  if  used  for  the  shipment  of  other  articles  must  have 
the  old  marks  thoroughly  removed  or  obliterated. 

1425.  (a)  Explosives  except  such  as  are  forbidden  (see  par.  1501) 
may  be  offered  for  transportation  to  railroads  engaged  in  interstate 
commerce,  provided  the  following  regulations  are  complied  with,  and 
provided  their  method  of  manufacture,  packing,  and  storage,  so  far  as 
it  affects  safe  transportation,  is  open  to  inspection  by  a  duly  authorized 
representative  of  the  initial  carrier  or  of  the  Bureau  of  Explosives.     Ship- 
ments of  explosives  that  do  not  comply  with  these  regulations  must 
not  be  received. 

(6)  Shipments  offered  by  the  War  and  Navy  Departments  of  the 
United  States  Government  may  be  packed,  including  limitations  of 
weight,  as  required  by  their  regulations. 

1426.  When  practicable  at  any  point,  regular  and  separate  days 
should  be  assigned  for  receiving  from  shippers  less-than-carload  lots  of 
dangerous  explosives  named  in  paragraph  1661. 

1427.  To  enable  the  carrier  to  provide  proper  cars  at  stations  where 
less-than-carload  shipments  of  the  dangerous  explosives  named  in  para- 
graph 1661  are  accepted  for  loading  by  the  carrier,  the  shipper  must 
give  to  the  carrier  not  less  than  24  hours'  notice  of  his  intention  to  offer 
such  shipments,  and  state  their  destinations.    When  a  regular  day  to 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     309 

receive  all  explosive  shipments  offered  at  such  a  station  has  been  appointed 
this  notice  may  be  waived  by  the  carrier,  but  the  explosive  shipments 
must  be  delivered  on  such  days  in  time  to  permit  proper  inspection, 
billing,  and  loading  on  that  day. 

1428.  Before  any  shipment  of  dangerous  explosives  as  named  in 
paragraph  1661  destined  to  a  point  beyond  the  lines  of  the  initial  carrier 
is  accepted  from  a  shipper,  the  initial  carrier  must  ascertain  that  the 
shipment  can  go  forward  via  the  route  designated. 

1429.  All  carriers  must  report  to  the  chief  inspector  of  the  Bureau 
of  Explosives  for  compilation  and  publication,  full  information  as  to 
restrictions  which  may  be  imposed  as  provided  in  paragraph  1401  (a) 
against  the  acceptance,  delivery,  or  transportation  of  explosives  over 
any  portion  of  their  lines. 

1430.  (a)  Forbidden  explosives,  as  defined  in  paragraph  1501,  and 
explosives  condemned  by  the  Bureau  of  Explosives   (except  properly 
repacked  samples  for  laboratory  examination),  must  not  be  offered  for 
shipment. 

(b)  Samples  of  any  new  explosives  must  be  examined  and  approved 
as  safe  for  transportation  by  the  Bureau  of  Explosives  before  ship- 
ments (except  samples  for  this  examination  not  exceeding  5  pounds  net 
in  weight)  can  be  accepted.  For  this  purpose  a  new  explosive  is  defined 
to  be  the  product  of  a  new  factory  or  an  explosive  of  an  essentially  new 
composition  made  by  any  factory. 

1431.  Leaking  or  damaged  packages   of   explosives   must   not  be 
offered  for  shipment.     Should  any  package  of  high  explosives  when 
offered  for  shipment  show  excessive  dampness  or  be  mouldy  or  show 
outward  signs  of  any  oily  stain  or  other  indication  that  absorption  of 
the  liquid  part  of  the  explosive  is  not  perfect,  or  that  the  amount  of 
the  liquid  part   is   greater  than  the  absorbent   can   carry,  it  must  be 
refused  in  every  instance.    The  shipper  must  substantiate  any  claim 
that  a  stain  is  due  to  accidental  contact  with  grease,  oil,  or  similar  sub- 
stance.    In  case  of  doubt,  the  package  must  be  rejected. 

1432.  Condemned  or  leaking  dynamite  must  not  be  repacked  and 
offered  for  shipment  unless  the  repacking  is  done  by  a  competent  per- 
son in   the   presence   of,  or  with  the  written  consent  of  the  inspector, 
or  with  the  written  authority  of  the  chief  inspector  of  the  Bureau  of 
Explosives. 

1433.  Carriers  must  forward  shipments  of  explosives  promptly  and 
within  48  hours  after  acceptance  at  originating  point  or  receipt  at  transfer 
station  or  at  interchange  point,  and  consignees  must  remove  such  ship- 
ments from  the  carrier's  property  within  48  hours  after  notice  of  arrival 
at  destinations,  Sundays  and  holidays  not  included. 


310  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

1434.  (a)  Serious  violations  of  these  regulations  (such  as  defective 
packing,  improper  staying,  rough  treatment  of  car,  broken  packages, 
etc.)  and  accidents  or  explosions  occurring  in  connection  with  the 
transportation  or  storage  on  carrier's  property  of  explosives  must  be 
reported  by  the  carrier  to  the  chief  inspector,  Bureau  of  Explosives, 
30  Vesey  Street,  New  York  City. 

All  violations  must  be  corrected  before  forwarding  the  explosives. 

.  (6)  Consignees  should  report  promptly  to  the  chief  inspector,  Bu- 
reau of  Explosives,  all  instances  of  improper  staying  and  broken  or 
defective  packages  of  explosives  in  shipments  received  by  them. 

SECTION  1. 

'  INFORMATION  AND  DEFINITIONS. 
Grouping. 

1500.  For  transportation  purposes,  explosives  are  divided  into  the 
following  groups : 

1.  Forbidden  explosives. 

2.  Acceptable  explosives. 

Group  1. — Forbidden  Explosives. 

1501.  The  following  are  forbidden  explosives: 
(a)  Liquid  nitroglycerin. 

(6)  Dynamite  containing  over  60  per  cent  of  nitroglycerin  (except 
gelatin  dynamite). 

(c)  Dynamite  having  an  unsatisfactory  absorbent,  or  one  that  per- 
mits leakage  of  nitroglycerin  under  any  conditions  liable  to  exist  during 
transportation  or  storage. 

(d)  Nitrocellulose  in  a  dry  and  uncompressed  condition,  in  quan- 
tity greater  than  10  pounds,  net  weight  in  one  exterior  package. 

(e)  Fulminate  of  mercury  in  bulk  in  a  dry  condition,  and  fulmi- 
nates of  all  other  metals  in  any  condition,  except  as  a  component  of 
manufactured  articles  whose  transportation  is  not  forbidden  herein. 

(/)  Fireworks  that  combine  an  explosive  and  a  detonator  or  blast- 
ing cap. 

(g)  Explosive  compositions  including  fireworks  that  ignite  spon- 
taneously, or  undergo  marked  decomposition  when  subjected  for  48 
consecutive  hours  to  a  temperature  of  75°  C.  (167°  F.). 

(h)  Firecrackers  whose  dimensions  exceed  5  inches  in  length  or 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter  or  whose  explosive  charges  exceed 
45  grains  each  in  weight. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.      311 

(i)  Toy  torpedoes  exceeding  1£  inches  in  diameter,  or  toy  caps  con- 
taining more  than  an  average  of  thirty-five  hundredths  of  a  grain  of 
explosive  composition  per  cap. 

(j)  Fireworks  that  can  be  exploded  en  masse  by  a  blasting  cap  placed 
in  one  of  the  units  or  by  the  impact  of  a  rifle  bullet  or  otherwise. 

Such  articles  may  be  shipped  when  packed,  marked,  and  certified 
in  accordance  with  these  regulations  and  offered  for  shipment  as  high 
explosives. 

(k)  Fireworks  containing  a  match  tip  or  head,  or  similar  igniting 
point  or  surface,  unless  each  individual  tip,  head,  or  similar  igniting 
point  or  surface  is  entirely  covered  and  securely  protected  from  acci- 
dental contact  or  friction  with  any  other  surface. 

(/)  Fireworks  or  explosives  containing  an  ammonium  salt  and  a 
chlorate. 

(m)  New  explosives  (except  samples  for  laboratory  examinations) 
until  approved  for  transportation  by  the  Bureau  of  Explosives. 

(ft)  Explosives  properly  condemned  by  the  Bureau  of  Explosives 
(except  properly  repacked  samples  for  laboratory  examinations).  Par- 
ties who  are  dissatisfied  with  the  decision  of  the  Bureau  may  appeal 
to  the  Commission,  and  if  it  is  a  question  of  chemical  composition  the 
Commission  will  arrange  to  have  a  test  made  by  a  disinterested  Govern- 
ment laboratory. 

Group  2. — Acceptable  Explosives. 

1502.  Low  explosives  and  black  powder  are  general  names  that 
may  be  used  to  describe  all  explosives  having  a  composition  similar 
to  that  of  ordinary  black  powder,  such  as  carbonaceous  material,  sul- 
phur, and  a  nitrate  of  sodium  or  potassium,  and  that  cannot  be  deto- 
nated by  a  commercial  blasting  cap.    Examples  are,  rifle,  sporting,  can- 
non, and  blasting  powders. 

1503.  High  explosives  are  all  explosives  more  powerful  than  ordinary 
black  powder,  except  smokeless  powders  and  fulminates.    Their  distin- 
guishing characteristic  is  their  susceptibility  to  detonation  by  a  blasting 
cap.    Examples   of  high   explosives   are   the   dynamites,   picric   acid,1 
picrates,  chlorate  powders,  nitrate  of  ammonia   powders,  dry  trinitro- 
toluol, dry  nitrocellulose  (gun  cotton,)  and  fireworks  that  can  be  exploded 
en  masse. 

1504.  Smokeless  powders  are  those  explosives  from  which  there  is 
little  or  no  smoke  when  fired.     They  include  smokeless  powder  for  can- 

1  Picric  acid  for  medicinal  purposes,  and  not  exceeding  4  ounces  in  one  outside  package, 
may  be  shipped  without  other  restrictions  when  in  securely  closed  glass  bottles,  properly 
cushioned  to  prevent  breakage. 


312  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

non  and  smokeless  powder  for  small  arms.  Smokeless  powder  for 
cannon  used  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  consists  of  a  nitro- 
cellulose colloid,  and  is  comparatively  safe  to  handle  and  transport. 
Smokeless  powders  for  small  arms  may  consist  of  nitrocellulose  or  nitro- 
cellulose combined  with  nitroglycerin.  Detonable  picrate  or  chlorate 
mixtures  are  classed  as  high  explosives. 

1505.  Fulminates  are  fulminates  of  mercury  or  of  other  metals  in 
bulk  form,  that  is,  not  made  up  into  percussion  caps,  detonators,  blast- 
ing caps,  toy  torpedoes,  or  exploders. 

1506.  Small-arms  ammunition  (such  as  is  used  in  sporting  or  fowling 
pieces,  or  in  rifle  or  pistol  practice,  etc.),  consists  usually  of  a  paper  or 
metallic  shell,  the  primer,  and  the  powder  charge,  with  or  without  shot 
or  bullet,  the  materials  necessary  for  one  firing  being  all  in  one  piece. 

1507.  Ammunition   for    cannon    embraces   all   fixed   or   separate- 
loading  ammunition  too  heavy  for  use  in  small  arms.     When  the  com- 
ponent parts  are  packed  in  separate  outside  packages  such  packages  may 
be  shipped  as  smokeless  powder  for  cannon,  explosive  projectiles,  empty 
(including  solid  and  sand  loaded)  projectiles,  primers,  or  fuses.    Igniters 
composed  of  black  powder  may  be  attached  to  packages  in  shipments  of 
smokeless  powder  for  cannon. 

1508.  Explosive   projectiles  are  loaded  shells  for  use  in  cannon. 
They  are  not  liable  to  be  exploded  except  by  fire  of  considerable  inten- 
sity, and  the  flying  fragments  would  then  be  very  dangerous. 

1509.  Blasting  caps  contain  from  5  to  50  grains  of  dry  fulminate 
of  mercury,  or  other  substance  similar  to  or  in  combination  with  ful- 
minate of  mercury,  packed  in  a  thin  copper  shell  and  fired  by  a  slow- 
burning  safety  fuse.    When  a  small  "  bridge  "  of  fine  wire  is  embedded 
in  a  suitable  priming  material  and  arranged  to  fire  the  fulminate  by 
heating  the  bridge  by  means  of  an  electric  current,  the  cap  is  called  an 
"  electric  blasting  cap."    They  cause  explosions  of  a  high  order,  or 
"  detonations."    This    means    the    instantaneous    conversion    of    the 
entire  explosive  into  gas  instead  of  the  gradual  conversion  known  as 
"  combustion."    Dynamite    "  detonates "    and    smokeless    powder   for 
cannon  "  burns." 

1510.  Detonating  fuses  are  used  in  the  military  service  to  detonate 
the  high   explosive   bursting   charges   of   projectiles   or   torpedoes.     In 
addition  to  a  powerful  detonator  they  may  contain  several  ounces  of 
a  high  explosive,  such  as  picric  acid  or  dry  nitrocellulose,  all  assembled 
in  a  heavy  steel  envelope. 

1511.  Primers,  percussion  and  time  fuses  are  devices  used  to  ignite 
the  black  powder  bursting  charges  of  projectiles,  or  the  powder  charges 
of  ammunition.    For  small-arms  ammunition  the  primers  are  usually 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     313 

called  "  small-arms  primers "  or  "  percussion  caps."  Tracer  fuses 
consist  of  a  device  which  is  attached  to  a  projectile  and  contains  a  slow- 
burning  composition  to  show  the  flight  of  projectiles  at  night. 

1512.  Safety  fuse  consists  ordinarily  of  a  core  of  granular  black 
powder,  which  is  surrounded  by  yarn,  tape,  pitch,  rubber,  etc. 

Cordeau  detonant  is  a  fuse  containing  trinitrotoluol,  assembled  in 
a  drawn  lead  tube. 

Safety  squibs  are  small  paper  tubes  containing  a  small  quantity 
of  black  powder,  one  end  of  each  tube  being  twisted  and  generally 
tipped  with  sulphur. 

1513.  Fireworks    include  everything  that  is  designed  and  manu- 
factured primarily  for  the  purpose  of  producing  a  visible  or  an  audible 
pyrotechnic  effect  by  combustion  or  by  explosion.    They  consist  of 
common  fireworks  and  special  fireworks.     (See  par.  1501  (j).) 

1514.  Common  fireworks  include  all  that  depend  principally  upon 
nitrates  to  support  combustion  and  not  upon  chlorates;    that  contain 
no  phosphorus  and  no  high  explosive  sensitive  to  shock  and  friction; 
that  produce  their  effect  through  color  display  rather  than  by  loud 
noises.     If  noise  is  the  principal  object,  the  units  must  be  small  and 
of  such  nature  and  manufacture  that  they  will  explode  separately  and 
harmlessly,  if  at  all,  when  one  unit  is  ignited  in  a  packing  case.    They 
must  not  be  designed  for  ignition  by  shock  or  friction.    Examples  are 
Chinese  firecrackers,  Roman  candles,  pinwheels,  colored  fires,  rockets, 
serpents,  railway  fuses,  flash  powders,  etc. 

1515.  Special  fireworks  include  all  that  contain  any  quantity  of 
phosphorus,   a  fulminate,   or  other  high  explosive  sensitive  to   shock 
or  friction,  or  that  contain  units  of  such  size  that  the  explosion  of  one 
while  being  handled  would  produce  a  serious  injury,  or  that  require 
a  special  applicance  or  tool,  mortar,  holder,  etc.,  for  their  safe  use,  or 
that   are   designed   for   ignition   by   shock   or   friction.     Examples   are 
giant  firecrackers,  bombs,  and  salutes  (not  high  explosives),  toy  tor- 
pedoes and  caps,  ammunition  pellets  fired  in  a  special  holder,  railway 
torpedoes,  etc. 

SECTION  2. 
PACKING,  MARKING,  AND  CERTIFYING  ACCEPTABLE  EXPLOSIVES. 

1531.  (a)  The  construction  of  shipping  containers  purchased  here- 
after and  used  in  shipping  explosives  must  conform  to  specifications 
approved  by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  that  apply,  and 
excepting  shipments  offered  by  the  United  States  Government,  each 
container  must  be  stamped,  labeled,  or  marked  "  Complies  with  I.  C. 


314  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

C.  Spec'n.  No.  -          "  or  equivalent  marking,  as  stated  in  the  speci- 
fication. 

(6)  In  addition  to  standing  the  tests  prescribed,  the  design  and 
construction  of  packages  must  be  such  as  to  prevent  the  occurrence 
in  individual  packages  of  defects  that  permit  leakage  of  their  contents 
under  the  ordinary  conditions  incident  to  transportation.  The  results 
of  experience,  gained  by  an  examination  of  broken  or  leaking  pack- 
ages on  arrival  at  destination,  must  be  reported  to  and  recorded  by  the 
Bureau  of  Explosives,  to  the  end  that  further  use  of  any  particular 
kind  of  package  shown  by  experience  to  be  inefficient  may  be  prohibited 
by  the  Commission. 

(c)  Pending  approval  and  promulgation  by  the  Commission  of 
specifications  for  types  of  shipping  containers  other  than  those  for 
which  specifications  are  published  herein,  containers  may  be  used  which 
after  investigation  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Explosives  or  by  other  com- 
petent testing  laboratory  in  the  presence  of  a  representative  of  the 
Bureau  of  Explosives,  are  shown  to  possess  the  general  efficiency  and 
the  protection  against  leakage  of  contents  afforded  by  the  standard 
types  of  corresponding  capacity  described  in  the  specifications  published 
herein,  provided  they  are  labeled  or  marked  to  show  compliance  with 
this  requirement. 

Samples  of  Explosives  Together. 

1532.  Samples  of  explosives  (except    blasting    caps)    in    separate 
interior  containers  may  be  packed  in  the  same  outside  package  of  gross 
weight  not  exceeding  50  pounds,  provided  the  weight  of  any  one  sample 
does  not  exceed  8  ounces,  and  provided  the  interior  packages  are  so 
cushioned  and  protected  as  to  insure  their  transportation  without  rup- 
ture or  leakage  of  contents.     The  package  must  be  marked  and  described 
with  the  name  of  the  most  dangerous  explosive  included  among  the  sam- 
ples, such  as  "  HIGH  EXPLOSIVE,"  "  BLACK  POWDER,"  etc. 

Low  Explosives  and  Black  Powder. 

1533.  Packing. — Packages  containing  less  than  12£  pounds  of  black 
powder  or  low  explosives  must  be  inclosed  in  a  tight  wooden  box  com- 
plying with  specification  No.  16.     Each  inside  package  containing  less 
than  12^  pounds  and  more  than  If  pounds  must  be  so  placed  in  the  out- 
side box  that  the  filling  hole  will  be  up.     The  boxes  must  be  marked  on 
top  "  THIS  SIDE  UP  "  and  also  as  prescribed  by  paragraph  1536. 

1534.  Twelve  and  a  half  pounds  or  over  of  black  powder  or  low 
explosives  must  be  packed  in  packages  that  comply  with  specification 
No.  11  or  13.    Kegs  less  than  8  inches  long  must  be  boxed  as  prescribed 
by  paragraph  1533. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     315 

1535.  Weight. — Packages  must  not  weigh  over  200  pounds  gross. 

1536.  Marking. — Each   outside  package  must  be  plainly  marked, 
stamped,    or   stenciled    "  BLACK   POWDER"    or    "LOW   EXPLO- 
SIVES,"   and   may   also   show    "BLASTING,"    "RIFLE,"    etc.,    as 
"BLACK  BLASTING  POWDER,"   "BLACK  RIFLE  POWDER," 
"LOW    BLASTING    EXPLOSIVE,"    etc.    Additional    marks,    trade 
names,  etc.,  may  appear  if  desired  by  shipper,  but  such  additional 
marking  must  not  be  more  conspicuous  nor  must  it  obscure  the  mark- 
ing prescribed  herein. 

High  Explosives. 

1551.  High  explosives  consisting  of  a  liquid  mixed  with  an  absorbent 
material  must  have  the  absorbent  (wood  pulp  or  similar  material)  in 
sufficient  quantity  and  of  satisfactory  quality,  properly  dried  at  the 
time  of  mixing;    nitrate  of  soda  must  be  dried  at  the  time  of  mixing 
to  less  than  1  per  cent  of  moisture;    and  the  ingredients  must  be  uni- 
formly mixed  so  that  the  liquid  will  remain  thoroughly  absorbed  under 
the  most  unfavorable  conditions  incident  to  transportation. 

1552.  Explosives    containing    nitroglycerin    must    have    uniformly 
mixed  with  the  absorbent  material  a  satisfactory  antacid  which  must 
be  in  quantity  sufficient  to  have  the  acid  neutralizing  power  of  an  amount 
of  magnesium  carbonate  equal  to  1  per  cent  of  the  nitroglycerin. 

1553.  (a)  Packing. — High  explosives  containing  more  than  10  per 
cent  of  nitroglycerin  (except  gelatin  dynamite)  must  be  made  into  car- 
tridges not  exceeding  4  inches  in  diameter  or  8  inches  in  length,  and  must 
not  be  packed  in  bags  or  sacks;  except  that  cartridges  5  inches  in  diameter 
and  not  exceeding  8  inches  in  length  may  be  shipped,  provided  each 
cartridge  of  the  explosive  is  completely  enclosed  in  a  shell  made  of  strong 
paraffined  paper,  and  thereafter  enclosed  in  another  such  paper  shell, 
the  completed  cartridge  being  dipped  in  melted  paraffin. 

(6)  High  explosives  containing  not  more  than  10  per  cent  of  nitro- 
glycerin may  be  shipped  in  bags  or  sacks.  Each  bag  or  sack  must  not 
contain  more  than  Yl\  pounds  of  explosive  and  must  be  placed  in  a 
box  with  filling  end  up.  These  bags  or  sacks  and  the  coverings  of  all 
cartridges  must  be  strong  and  so  treated  that  they  will  not  absorb  the 
liquid  constituent  of  the  explosive. 

1554.  (a)  All   boxes  in  which  high  explosives  in  cartridges,   bags, 
sacks,  or  in  bulk  are  packed  must  be  lined  with  strong  paraffined  paper 
or  other  suitable  material.    The  lining  must  be  without  joints  or  other 
openings  at  the  bottom  or  on  the  sides  of  the  box,  and  must  be  imper- 
vious to  water  and  to  any  liquid  ingredient  of  the  explosive. 

(6)  In  packing  cartridges  of  nitroglycerin  explosives  at  least  one- 


316  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

quarter  of  an  inch  thickness  of  dry,  fine  wood  pulp  or  sawdust  must 
be  spread  over  the  bottom  of  the  lined  box  before  inserting  the  car- 
tridges, and  all  the  vacant  space  in  the  top  must  be  filled  with  this 
material. 

(c)  All  cartridges  exceeding  4  inches  in  length,  except  explosive 
gelatin  or  gelatin  dynamite,  must  be  placed  horizontally  in  boxes. 

1555.  Inside  packages  containing  not  more  than  1  pound  each  of 
dry  uncompressed  nitrocellulose,   wrapped  in  strong  paraffined  paper 
or  other  suitable  spark-proof  material,  will  be  accepted  for  shipment  if 
securely  packed  in  an  outside  package  that   complies  with   Specifica- 
tion No.  14  and  is  marked  as  prescribed  in  paragraph  1559.     Outside 
packages  must  not  contain  more  than  10  pounds  of  dry  nitrocellulose. 

1556.  (a)  High  explosives  containing  no  explosive  liquid  ingredient 
and  not  having,  with  their  normal  percentage  of  moisture,  a  sensitive- 
ness to  percussion  greater  than  measured  by  the  blow  delivered  by  an 
8-pound  weight  dropping  from  a  height  of  7  inches  on  a  compressed 
pellet  of  the  explosive  three-hundredths  of  an  inch  in  thickness  and  two- 
tenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  confined  rigidly  between  hard  steel  surfaces, 
as  in  the  standard  impact-testing  apparatus  of  the  Bureau  of  Explosives, 
may  be  shipped  in  bulk  when  securely  packed  in  authorized  containers. 
These  explosives  may  also  be  packed  in  cartridges,  and  must  be  so  packed 
when  their  sensitiveness  is  greater  than  the  above  limit.     Wooden  boxes 
or  wooden  kegs  provided  with  suitable  linings  to  prevent  leakage  must 
be  used  for  chlorate  powders. 

(6)  When  the  addition  of  water  to  any  such  explosive  will  make  it 
non-explosive  according  to  tests  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Explosives, 
the  wet  material  may  be  shipped  and  handled  in  transit  as  prescribed 
by  the  Regulations  for  the  Transportation  of  Dangerous  Articles  other 
than  Explosives  by  Freight  and  by  Express. 

1557.  Containers  for  high  explosives  must  comply  with  Specifica- 
tions Nos.  11,  14,  20,  21,  and  22  as  specified  therein. 

1558.  (a)  Weights. — Packages    of    high    explosives    containing    an 
explosive  liquid  ingredient  must  not  exceed  75  pounds  gross  weight. 

(6)  Packages  of  high  explosives  containing  no  liquid  explosive  ingre- 
dient whose  shipment  in  bulk  is  authorized  by  paragraph  1556  must 
not  exceed  125  pounds  gross  weight. 

(c)  The  gross  weight  of  an  outside  package  containing  not  exceed- 
ing 10  pounds  net  of  dry  nitrocellulose,  not  compressed,  packed  as 
prescribed  in  paragraph  1555,  must  not  exceed  35  pounds.  Com- 
pressed sticks  or  blocks  of  dry  nitrocellulose  (guncotton)  wrapped  in 
strong  paraffined  paper  may  be  shipped  in  outside  packages  complying 
with  Specification  No.  14,  with  a  gross  weight  not  exceeding  75  pounds. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     317 

1559.  Marking. — Boxes  must  be  plainly  marked  on  top  and  on 
one  side  or  end  and  kegs  must  be  marked  on  one  end  "  HIGH  EX- 
PLOSIVE—DANGEROUS," in  letters  not  less  than  A  inch  in  height. 
The  tops  of  boxes  must  be  marked  "  THIS  SIDE  UP." 

Smokeless  Powder  for  Cannon. 

1571.  Packing. — Smokeless   powder    for    cannon    must    be    packed 
in  tight  wooden  boxes  free  from  loose  knots  and  cracks,  or  in  wooden 
barrels  that  comply  with  Specification  No.  11,  or  in  metal  barrels  or 
kegs  that  comply  with  Specification  No.   13.     Smokeless  powder  for 
cannon  may  be  packed  in  water  in  metal  barrels  or  in  strong  wooden 
barrels  of  the  type  used  for  alcohol. 

1572.  Weight. — Packages  must  not  weigh  over  180  pounds  gross 
unless  the  powder  is  packed  in  water. 

1573.  Marking. — Each  package  must  be  plainly  marked  "  SMOKE- 
LESS  POWDER   FOR   CANNON,"   or   "SMOKELESS   POWDER 
FOR  CANNON  IN  WATER." 

Smokeless  Powder  for  Small  Arms. 

1575.  Packing. — Packages  containing  less  than  9  pounds  of  smoke- 
less powder  for  small  arms  must  be  inclosed  in  a  tight  wooden  box  com- 
plying with  Specification  No.  16.  Each  inside  package  containing 
less  than  9  pounds  and  more  than  1|  pounds  must  be  so  placed  in  the 
outside  box  that  the  filling  hole  will  be  up.  The  box  must  be  marked 
on  top  "  THIS  SIDE  UP  "  and  also  as  prescribed  by  paragraph  1578. 

,1576.  Quantities  of  9  pounds  or  over  of  smokeless  powder  for  small 
arms  must  be  packed  in  tight  wooden  boxes  free  from  loose  knots  or 
cracks,  or  in  wooden  barrels  that  comply  with  Specification  No.  11,  or 
in  metal  barrels  or  kegs  that  comply  with  Specification  No.  13.  Kegs 
less  than  8  inches  long  must  be  boxed  as  prescribed  by  paragraph  1575. 
Smokeless  powder  for  small  arms  may  be  packed  in  water  in  metal  barrels 
or  in  strong  wooden  barrels  of  the  type  used  for  alcohol. 

1577.  Weight. — Packages  must  not  weigh  over  150  pounds  gross. 

1578.  Marking. — Each  outside   package   must   be   plainly  marked 
"  SMOKELESS  POWDER  FOR  SMALL  ARMS,"  or  "  SMOKELESS 
POWDER  FOR  SMALL  ARMS  IN  WATER." 

Fulminates. 

1591.  Packing. — Fulminate  of  mercury  in  bulk  must  contain  when 
packed  not  less  than  25  per  cent  of  water,  and  must  in  this  wet  condi- 
tion be  placed  in  a  bag  made  of  heavy  cotton  cloth  of  close  mesh,  equal 
in  quality  and  weight  to  the  cotton  twill  used  for  pockets  in  high-grade 


3i8  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

clothing.  There  must  be  placed  inside  the  bag  and  over  the  fulminate 
a  cap  of  the  same  cloth  and  of  the  diameter  of  the  bag,  and  the  bag  must 
be  tied  securely  and  placed  in  a  strong  grain  bag,  which  must,  in  turn, 
be  tied  securely  and  packed  in  the  center  of  a  cask  or  barrel  in  good 
condition  and  of  the  kind  used  for  shipment  of  alcohol.  The  grain  bag 
must  not  contain  more  than  150  pounds  dry  weight  of  fulminate  and  it 
must  be  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  tightly  packed  sawdust  not  less  than 
6  inches  thick.  The  cask  or  barrel  must  be  lined  with  a  heavy,  close- 
fitting  jute  bag,  closed  by  secure  sewing  to  prevent  escape  of  sawdust. 
After  the  barrel  is  properly  coopered  it  must  be  rilled  with  water  and  the 
bung  sealed.  The  barrel  must  be  inspected  carefully  and  all  leaks 
stopped. 

1592.  Marking. — Each  cask  or  barrel  must  be  plainly  marked 
"  WET  FULMINATE  OF  MERCURY— DANGEROUS," 

Small-Arms  Ammunition. 

1601.  Packing. — Small-arms  ammunition  must  be  packed  in  paste- 
board or  other  boxes,  and  these  boxes  must  be  packed  in  strong  out- 
side wooden  or  metal  containers. 

Small-arms  ammunition  in  pasteboard  or  other  boxes,  and  in  quantity 
not  exceeding  a  gross  weight  of  75  pounds,  may  be  packed  with  non- 
explosive  and  non-inflammable  articles  and  with  small-arms  primers 
or  percussion  caps  (see  par.  1619),  provided  the  outside  wooden  or 
metal  container  is  marked  as  prescribed  in  paragraph  1602. 

1602.  Marking. — Each   outside  package  or   case  must  be  plainly 
marked  "  SMALL-ARMS  AMMUNITION." 

1603.  No  restrictions,  other  than  proper  packing  and  marking,  are 
necessary  for  the  shipment  of  small-arms  ammunition, 

Ammunition  for  Cannon. 

1604.  Packing. — Ammunition  for  cannon  must  be  well  packed  and 
properly  secured  in  strong  wooden  or  metal  containers. 

1605.  Marking. — Each   outside   package  must  be   plainly  marked 
"AMMUNITION   FOR  CANNON  WITH  EXPLOSIVE  PROJEC- 
TILES,"   or    "AMMUNITION    FOR    CANNON    WITH    EMPTY 
PROJECTILES,"    or    "AMMUNITION    FOR    CANNON    WITH 
SAND-LOADED  PROJECTILES,"  or  "  AMMUNITION  FOR  CAN- 
NON WITH  SOLID  PROJECTILES,"   according  as  the  projectiles 
do  or  do  not  contain,  a  bursting  charge,  or  "  AMMUNITION  FOR 
CANNON  WITHOUT  PROJECTILES." 

Empty  cartridge  bags  having  attached  black-powder  igniters  must 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.      319 

be   marked    "EMPTY   CARTRIDGE   BAGS  — BLACK   POWDER 
IGNITERS."       , 

1606.  No  restrictions  other  than  proper  marking  are  prescribed  for 
shipments  of  material  relating  to  ammunition  for   cannon,   but  con- 
taining no  explosive  or  other  dangerous  article,  such  as  cartridge  cases, 
"  dummy  "  or  "  drill  "  cartridges,  etc. 

Explosive  Projectiles. 

1607.  Packing. — Explosive   projectiles   must   be   packed  in  strong 
wooden  or  metal  boxes  and  each  projectile  must  be  properly  secured. 
Projectiles  exceeding  100  pounds  in  weight  may  be  shipped  without 
being  boxed,  if  desired.     When  necessary,  detonating  fuses  of  an  approved 
type  may  be  assembled  in  explosive  projectiles. 

1608.  Weight. — The  gross  weight  of  a  box  containing  more  than 
one  explosive  projectile  must  not  exceed  250  pounds. 

1609.  Marking. — Each    exterior    package    or    projectile    must    be 
plainly  marked   "EXPLOSIVE   PROJECTILE,"   "SAND-LOADED 
PROJECTILE,"    "SOLID    PROJECTILE,"    "EMPTY    PROJEC- 
TILE," "  EXPLOSIVE  TORPEDO,"  or  "  EMPTY  TORPEDO." 

No  restrictions,  other  than  proper  marking,  are  prescribed  for  the 
shipment  of  sand-loaded  projectiles,  empty  projectiles,  solid  projec- 
tiles, or  empty  torpedoes,  and  tracer  fuses  of  an  approved  type  may 
be  assembled  in  projectiles. 

Blasting  Caps. 

1611.  Packing. — Blasting  caps  contain  such  a  sensitive  and  danger- 
ous explosive  that  very  efficient  packing  is  necessary,  and  the  outside 
of  all  caps  must  be  free  from  fulminate. 

(a)  Blasting  caps  must  be  packed  in  strong  interior  packages  or 
containers,  in  which  they  must  fit  snugly,  and  the  caps  must  be  closed 
securely  by  teats  projecting  from  a  plate  of  suitable  elastic  material 
placed  over  the  caps.  Not  more  than  100  blasting  caps  may  be  packed 
in  a  single  inside  container.  All  inside  containers  must  then  be  packed 
snugly  in  cartons  or  wrappings  made  of  paper  or  pasteboard. 

(6)  For  not  more  than  5000  caps  the  inside  containers  in  cartons 
or  wrappings  must  be  packed  in  an  outside  box  which  must  comply 
with  Specification  No.  15,  and  they  must  be  separated  from  the  out- 
side box  by  at  least  1  inch  of  tightly  packed  sawdust,  excelsior,  or  equiv- 
alent cushioning  material. 

(c)  For  more  than  5000  caps  the  inside  containers,  in  cartons  or 
wrappings,  must  be  packed  in  an  inside  box  made  of  sound  lumber 
or  in  a  hermetically  sealed  metal  box  made  of  not  less  than  30-gauge 


320  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

United  States  standard,  and  this  inside  wooden  or  metal  box  must 
then  be  packed  in  an  outside  box  made  of  sound  lumber;  both  of  these 
boxes  must  comply  with  Specification  No.  15.  Tightly  packed  sawdust, 
excelsior,  or  equivalent  cushioning  material  at  least  1  inch  thick  at  all 
points  must  separate  the  inside  box  from  the  outside  wooden  box. 

(d)  More  than  20,000  blasting  caps  must  not  be  placed  in  one  out- 
side package. 

(e)  Not  more  than  five  tin  boxes,  containing  not  more  than  100 
blasting  caps  in  each  box,  may  be  packed  with  safety  fuse,  each  box 
to  be  placed  in  the  center  of  a  coil  of  fuse,  and  in  this  case  the  outside 
box  must   be   made   of   sound  lumber,   complying  with   Specification 
No.  15. 

(/)  Electric  blasting  caps  must  be  packed  in  pasteboard  cartons 
containing  not  more  than  50  caps  each.  These  cartons  must  be  packed 
in  a  wooden  box,  complying  with  Specification  No.  15. 

1612.  Weight — The  gross  weight  of  an  outside  package   containing 
blasting  caps  or  electric  blasting  caps  must  not  exceed  150  pounds. 

1613.  Marking. — Each   outside   package   must   be   plainly   marked 
"  (number)  BLASTING  CAPS— HANDLE  CAREFULLY/'  or  "  (num- 
ber)   ELECTRIC    BLASTING    CAPS— HANDLE    CAREFULLY." 
In  addition,  each  box  must  bear  the  marking  "  DO  NOT  STORE  OR 
LOAD  WITH  ANY  HIGH  EXPLOSIVE." 

Detonating  Fuses. 

1615.  Packing. — Detonating  fuses  must  be  packed  in  strong,  tight 
wooden  boxes,  and  each  fuse  must  be  well  secured. 

1616.  Weight. — The  gross  weight  of  one  outside  package  must  not 
exceed  165  pounds. 

1617.  Marking. — Each  outside  package  must  be   plainly  marked 
"  DETONATING  FUSES— HANDLE  CAREFULLY." 

Primers,  Percussion  and  Time  Fuses. 

1619.  (a)  Packing. — Primers,  percussion  and  time  fuses  must  be 
packed  in  strong,  tight  wooden  outside  boxes,  with  special  provision 
for  securing  individual  packages  of  primers  and  fuses  against  move- 
ment in  the  box. 

(6)  Small-arms  primers  containing  anvils  must  be  packed  in  cellular 
inside  packages,  with  partitions  separating  the  layers  and  columns  of 
primers,  so  that  the  explosion  of  a  portion  of  the  primers  in  the  com- 
pleted shipping  package  will  not  cause  the  explosion  of  all  of  the  primers. 

(c)  Percussion  caps  may  be  packed  in  metal  or  other  inside  boxes 
containing  not  more  than  500  caps,  but  the  construction  of  the  cap 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     321 

and  the  kind  and  quantity  of  explosives  in  each  must  be  such  that  the 
explosion  of  a  part  of  the  caps  in  the  completed  shipping  package  will 
not  cause  the  explosion  of  all  of  the  caps. 

(d)  Small-arms  primers  and  percussion  caps  may  form  a  part  of 
the  gross  weight  of  75  pounds  of  small-arms  ammunition  that  may 
be  packed  with  other  articles  as  authorized  by  paragraph  1601. 

1620.  Weight. — The  gross  weight  of  one  outside  package  must  not 
exceed  150  pounds. 

1621.  Marking. — Each    outside    box    must    be    plainly    marked 
"  SMALL-ARMS  PRIMERS— HANDLE  CAREFULLY,"  or  "  PER- 
CUSSION CAPS— HANDLE  CAREFULLY,"  or  "  CANNON  PRIM- 
ERS—HANDLE CAREFULLY,"  or  "COMBINATION  PRIMERS 
—HANDLE  CAREFULLY,"  or  "  PERCUSSION  FUSES— HANDLE 
CAREFULLY,"   or   "COMBINATION   FUSES— HANDLE   CARE- 
FULLY,"  or    "TRACER   FUSES— HANDLE   CAREFULLY,"   etc. 

1622.  No  restrictions  other  than  proper  packing  and  marking  are 
necessary  for  the  shipment  of  primers,  percussion  and  time  fuses.     No 
restrictions  other   than   proper  marking  are   prescribed   for  the   ship- 
ment of  "  Empty  cartridge  shells,  primed." 

Common  Fireworks. 

1631.  Packing. — Common  fireworks  must  be  in  a  finished  state, 
exclusive  of  mere  ornamentation,  as  supplied  to  the  retail  trade,  and 
must  be  securely  packed  in  strong,  tight,  spark-proof  wooden  barrels 
that  comply  with  Specification  No.   11,  or  in  boxes  complying  with 
Specification  No.  12A. 

1632.  Weight. — The  gross  weight  of  one  outside  package  containing 
common  fireworks  must  not  exceed  325  pounds,  except  that  exhibi- 
tion set  pieces  when  specially  packed  may  have  weight  not  exceeding 
400  pounds. 

1633.  Marking. — Each  outside  package  must  be  plainly  marked  in 
letters  not  less  than  ^  inch  in  height,  "COMMON  FIREWORKS- 
KEEP  FIRE  AWAY." 

Special  Fireworks. 

1634.  Packing. — Special   fireworks   must   be   in   a   finished   state, 
exclusive  of  mere  ornamentation,  as  supplied  to  the  retail  trade,  and 
must  not  contain  forbidden  fireworks.     (See  par.  1501   (/)  to  (7),  in- 
clusive.) 

Special  fireworks  must  be  securely  packed  in  strong,  spark-proof 
wooden  barrels  that  comply  with  Specification  No.  11,  or  in  boxes 
complying  with  Specification  No.  12. 


322  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

1635.  Weight. — The  gross  weight  of  one  outside  package  contain- 
ing special  fireworks  must  not  exceed  200  pounds,  and  the  gross  weight 
of  a  package  containing  toy  torpedoes  must  not  exceed  65  pounds. 

1636.  Marking. — Each    outside    package    containing    special    fire- 
works or  a  mixture  of  common  and  special  fireworks  must  be  plainly 
marked  in  letters  not  less  than  ^  inch  in  height,  "  SPECIAL  FIRE- 
WORKS—HANDLE CAREFULLY— KEEP  FIRE  AWAY." 

Safety  Fuse,  Cordeau  Detonant,  and  Safety  Squibs. 

1638.  Safety  fuse,  cordeau  detonant,  and  safety  squibs  must  be 
packed  in  strong  wooden  boxes  or  barrels  properly  marked,  and  may 
be  loaded  in  any  car  with  any  other  kind  of  an  explosive  or  inflam- 
mable substance  or  with  other  freight.  Cordeau  detonant  must  not 
be  packed  in  the  same  package  with  blasting  caps,  or  with  any  high 
explosive. 

SHIPPING  ORDER. 

1641.  (a)  Shipper's  certificate. — The  shipping  order  for  any  pack- 
age containing  an  explosive  named  below  must  show  each  article  under 
its  proper  name  as  specified  in  this  paragraph,  and  must  show  the  fol- 
lowing certificate  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner,  over  the  written  or 
stamped  facsimile  signature  of  the  shipper  or  of  his  duly  authorized 
agent : 

This  is  to  certify  that  the  above  articles  are  properly  described  by  name  and 
are  packed  and  marked  and  are  in  proper  condition  for  transportation  according 
to  the  regulations  prescribed  by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission. 

List  of  Shipping  Names. 

Low  explosives. 
Black  powder. 
High  explosives. 
Smokeless  powder  for  cannon. 
Smokeless  powder  for  small  arms. 
Wet  fulminate  of  mercury. 

Ammunition  for  cannon  with  explosive  projectiles. 
Ammunition  for  cannon  with  empty  projectiles. 
Ammunition  for  cannon  with  sand-loaded  projectiles. 
Ammunition  for  cannon  with  solid  projectiles. 
Ammunition  for  cannon  without  projectiles. 
Explosive  projectiles. 
Explosive  torpedoes. 
-  Detonating  fuses. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     323 

(Number)  blasting  caps. 

(Number)  electric  blasting  caps. 

Common  fireworks. 

Special  fireworks. 

(fe)  The  following  acceptable  explosives  must  be  described  under  their 
proper  names  as  given  below,  but  shipper's  certificate  is  not  required: 

Small-arms  ammunition. 

Small-arms  primers. 

Cannon  primers. 

Empty  cartridge  shells,  primed. 

Empty  cartridge  bags — black  powder  igniters. 

Combination  primers. 

Percussion  caps. 

Percussion  fuses. 

Time  fuses. 

Tracer  fuses. 

Combination  fuses. 

Safety  fuse. 

Cordeau  detonant. 

Safety  squibs. 

Empty  projectiles. 

Sand-loaded  projectiles. 

Solid  projectiles. 

Empty  torpedoes. 

(c)  Whenever  orders  are  placed  in  foreign  countries  for  the  impor- 
tation of  explosives,  to  be  forwarded  from  port  of  entry  by  carriers 
subject  to  these  regulations,  the  importer  must  furnish  with  the  order 
to  the  foreign  shipper,  and  also  to  the  forwarding  agent'  at  the  port 
of  entry,  full  and  complete  information  as  to  the  necessary  packing 
and*  marking  required  by  these  regulations.  The  forwarding  agent 
must  file  with  the  originating  carrier  a  properly  prepared  and  certified 
shipping  order  as  prescribed  herein. 

SECTION  3. 
RULES  FOR  HANDLING. 

1642.  In  handling  packages  of  explosives  at  stations  and  in  trans- 
ferring them  to  and  from  cars  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken,  and 
shocks  or  falls  liable  to  injure  the  containing  package  must  be  avoided. 
Where  an  inclined  chute  is  employed  such  chute  shall  be  constructed 
of  1-inch  planed  boards,  with  side  guards  4  inches  high  extending  3 
inches  above  top  face  of  bottom  of  chute  and  throughout  its  length 


324  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

fastened  with  brass  screws.  D-shaped  strips  or  runners,  not  more 
than  6  inches  apart  and  running  lengthwise  of  chute,  must  be  fastened 
to  the  upper  surface  of  the  bottom  board  by  means  of  glue  and  wooden 
pegs  extending  through  the  bottom  board  and  runners.  Chutes  must 
be  occasionally  wiped  down  with  waste  moistened  with  machine  oil 
when  dynamite  packages  are  being  handled. 

A  stuffed  mattress,  4  feet  wide  by  6  feet  long  and  not  less  than  4 
inches  thick,  or  a  heavy  jute  or  hemp  mat  of  like  dimensions,  must 
be  placed  under  the  discharging  end  of  the  chute. 

1643.  (a)  Careful  men  must  be  chosen  to  handle  explosives,  the 
platform  and  the  feet  of  the  men  must  be  as  free  as  possible  from  grit, 
and  all  possible  precautions  must  be  taken  against  fire.     Suitable  pro- 
vision must  be  made,  outside  of  the  station  when  practicable,  for  the 
safe  storage  of  explosives,  and  every  effort  possible  must  be  made  to 
reduce  the  time  of  this  storage.     If  a  shipment  of  explosives  is  not 
removed  within  forty-eight  hours  after  notice  of  arrival  at  destination, 
it  must  be  disposed  of  by  return  to  the  shipper,  or  by  storage  at  the 
expense  of  the  owner,  or  by  sale,  or  when  necessary  to  safety  by  destruc- 
tion under  supervision  of  a  competent  person. 

(6)  Unauthorized  persons  must  not  have  access  to  explosives  or 
other  dangerous  articles  at  any  time  while  such  articles  are  in  the  cus- 
tody of  the  carrier. 

Loading  in  Car. 

1644.  (a)  Packages   receive   their   greatest   stresses   in   a   direction 
parallel  to  the  length  of  the, car  and  must  be  loaded  so  as  to  offer  their 
greatest  resistance  in  this  direction.    Boxes  of  dangerous-  explosives 
named  in  paragraph  1661  when  loaded  in  the  car  must  rest  on  their 
bottoms  and  with  their  long  dimension  parallel  to  the  length  of  the 
car. 

(6)  A  car  must  not  contain  more  than  70,000  pounds  gross  weight 
of  explosives.  This  limit  does  not  apply  to  shipments  of  small-arms 
ammunition  or  ammunition  for  cannon. 

(c)  When  the  lading  of  a  car  includes  explosives  and  exceeds  5000 
pounds  the  weight  of  the  lading  must  be  distributed  in  approximately 
equal  parts  in  both  ends  of  the  car. 

1645.  Explosives  packed  in  kegs,  except  when  boxed,  must  be  loaded 
on  their  sides  with  ends  toward  ends  of  the  car;  and  packages  of  explo- 
sives must  not  be  placed  in  the  space  opposite  the  doors  unless  the  door- 
ways are  boarded  on  the  inside  as  high  as  the  lading. 

Large  casks,  barrels,  or  drums  may  be  loaded  on  their  sides  or  ends 
as  will  best  suit  the  conditions. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     325 

1646.  (a)  Packages  containing  any  of  the  explosives  for  the  trans- 
portation of  which  a  certified  and  placarded  car  is  prescribed  (see  par. 
1661),  must  be  stayed  (blocked  and  braced)  by  the  one  who  loads  the 
car,  by  methods  not  less  efficient  than  those  described  in  Bureau  of 
Explosives  Pamphlet  No.  6,  to  prevent  change  of  position  by  the  ordi- 
nary shocks  incident  to  transportation.     Special  care  must  be  used  to 
prevent  them  from  falling  to  the  floor  or  from  having  anything  fall  on 
them  or  slide  against  them  during  transit. 

(b)  To  prevent  delays  to  local  freight  trains,  when  there  are  ship- 
ments of  explosives  for  different  destinations  loaded  in  a  "  peddle  car  "  or 
"  way  car,"  the  shipments  for  each  destination  must  be  stayed  separately. 

(c)  Forwarding  and  transfer  stations  for  explosives  must  be  pro- 
vided with  the  necessary  materials  for  staying. 

(d)  Shippers  must  furnish  the  material  for  staying  packages  loaded 
by  them. 

1647.  Detonating  fuses  or  blasting  caps,  or  electric  blasting  caps, 
must  not  be  loaded  in  a  car  or  stored  with  high  explosives  of  any  kind, 
including  explosive  projectiles,  nor  with  wet  nitrocellulose. 

1648.  Wet  fulminate  of  mercury  must  not  be  loaded  with  any  ex- 
plosive or  inflammable  article. 

1649.  Fireworks  must  not  be  loaded  in  the  same  car  nor   stored  on 
carrier*'  property  with  any  explosive  named  in  paragraph  1661. 

1650.  Explosives  named  in  paragraph  1661  that  require  a  certified 
car,  placarded  "  EXPLOSIVE,"  must  not  be  transported  in  the  same 
car  with  nor  stored  on  railway  property  near  any  of  the  dangerous 
articles  for  which  labels  are  prescribed  by  the  Regulations  for  the  Trans- 
portation of  Dangerous  Articles,  other  than  Explosives  by  Freight. 

1651.  In  a  car  containing  explosives  all  packages  of  other  freight 
must  be  loaded,  and  when  necessary  must  be  stayed  to  prevent  injury 
to   packages   of   explosives   during   transit.     When   practicable,   explo- 
sives should  be  loaded  so  as  to  avoid  transfer  at  stations.1 

Waybilling. 

1652.  (a)  The  carrier  must  see  that  each  shipment  of  explosives 
is  properly  described  on  the  shipping  order  and  on  the  revenue  way- 
bill under  one  of  the  names  in  the  "  List  of  shipping  names,"  para- 
graph 1641,  and  that  the  correct  gross  weight  is  given. 

(6)  The  revenue  waybill  or  astray  waybill  for  a  shipment,  and  the 
card  waybill  and  envelope  containing  revenue  waybill  when  used  as 
a  card  waybill  for  a  car  containing  any  of  the  following  explosives: 

1  At  stations  where  it  is  necessary  to  handle  explosives  at  night  it  is  recommended  that 
incandescent  electric  lights  be  provided. 


326  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Low  explosives, 

Black  powder, 

High  explosives, 

Wet  fulminate  of  mercury, 

Ammunition  for  cannon  with  explosive  projectiles, 

Explosive  projectiles, 

Explosive  torpedoes, 

Detonating  fuses, 

Blasting  caps,  /  In  quantity  exceeding    1000  blasting  caps 

Electric  blasting  caps,  \     or  1000  electric  blasting  caps, 
must  have  plainly  stamped  or  plainly  written  across  the  top,  in  letters 
not  less  than  f  of  an  inch  high,  the  word  "  EXPLOSIVES." 

(c)  The  revenue  waybill  and  astray  waybill  for  a  shipment,  and 
the  card  waybill  and  envelope  containing  revenue  waybill  when  used  as 
a  card  waybill  for  a  car  containing: 

Ammunition  for  cannon  with  empty  projectiles, 

Ammunition  for  cannon  with  sand-loaded  projectiles, 

Ammunition  for  cannon  without  projectiles, 

Ammunition  for  cannon  with  solid  projectiles, 

Smokeless  powder  for  small  arms, 

Smokeless  powder  for  cannon, 

Common  fireworks,  or 

Special  fireworks, 

must  have  plainly  stamped  or  plainly  written  across  the  top,  in  letters 
not  less  than  f  of  an  inch  high,  the  word  "  INFLAMMABLE." 

(d)  No  indorsements  are  required  on  revenue  waybills,  card  way- 
bills, or  other  billing  for  shipments  or  for  cars  of  the  following  explo- 
sives: 

Small-arms  ammunition. 

Small-arms  primers. 

Cannon  primers. 

Empty  cartridge  shells,  primed. 

Empty  cartridge  bags — black  powder  igniters. 

Combination  primers. 

Percussion  caps. 

Percussion  fuses. 

Time  fuses. 

Tracer  fuses. 

Combination  fuses. 

Safety  fuse. 

Cordeau  detonant. 

Safety  squibs. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     327 

Empty  projectiles. 
Sand-loaded  projectiles. 
Solid  projectiles. 
Empty  torpedoes. 
Blasting  caps. 
Electric  blasting  caps 


>•  In  quantity  not  exceeding  1000  caps. 


Shipments  from  Connecting  Lines. 

1654.  (a)  Cars    containing    explosives    named    in    paragraph    1661 
which  are  offered  by  connecting  lines  must  be  carefully  inspected  by 
the  receiving  line  on  the  outside,  including  the  roof,  and  if  practicable 
the  lading  must  also  be  inspected.     These  cars  must  not  be  forwarded 
until  all  discovered  violations  have  been  corrected. 

(6)  If  the  car  shows  evidence  of,  or  if  there  is  any  reason  to  sus- 
pect that  it  has  received,  rough  treatment,  the  lading  must  be  inspected 
and  placed  in  proper  condition  before  the  car  is  permitted  to  proceed. 
When  interchange  occurs  and  inspection  is  necessary  after  dayligLfc 
hours,  electric  flash  lights  or  other  suitable  covered  lights  should  be 
provided.  Naked  lights  must  not  be  used. 

(c)  Shipments  of  explosives  offered  by  connecting  lines  must  comply 
with  these  regulations,  and  the  revenue  waybill,  freight  bill,  manifest 
of  lading,  card  waybill,  switching  order,  or  other  billing  must  bear  the 
indorsement  "  EXPLOSIVES "  or  "INFLAMMABLES7'  prescribed 
by  paragraph  1652  (6)  and  (c). 

Disposition  of  Injured,  Condemned,  and  Astray  Packages. 

1655.  Packages  found  injured  or  broken  in  transit  may  be  recoop- 
ered  when  this  is  evidently  practicable  and  not  dangerous.    A  broken 
box  of  high  explosives  that  can  not  be  recoopered  should  be  reinforced 
by  stout  wrapping  paper  and  twine,  placed  in  another  strong  box,  and 
surrounded  by  dry,  fine  sawdust,  or  dry  and  clean  cotton    waste,  or 
elastic  wads  made  from  dry  newspaper.    A  ruptured  can  or  keg  should  be 
inclosed  in  a  grain  bag  of  good  quality  and  boxed  or  crated.     Injured 
packages  thus  protected  and  properly  marked  may  be  forwarded. 

1656.  Condemned   packages   of  leaking  explosives  should   (1)  be 
returned  immediately  to  shipper  if  at  point  of  shipment;    or  (2)  dis- 
posed of  to  a  person  who  is  competent  and  willing  to  remove  them  from 
railway  property,  if  leakage  is  discovered  while  in  transit;  or  (3)  removed 
immediately  by  consignee  if  shipment  is  at  destination. 

When  disposition  cannot  be  made  as  above,  the  leaking  boxes  must 
be  packed  in  other  boxes  large  enough  to  permit,  and  the  leaking  box 
must  be  surrounded  by  at  least  2  inches  of  dry,  fine  sawdust,  or  dry  and 


328  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

clean  cotton  waste,  and  be  stored  in  station  magazine  or  other  safe 
place  until  arrival  of  an  inspector  of  the  Bureau  of  Explosives  or  other 
authorized  person  to  superintend  the  destruction  or  disposition  of  the 
condemned  material. 

1657.  When  name  and  address  of  consignee  or  shipper  are  known, 
an  astray  shipment  must  be  forwarded  to  its  destination  or  returned 
to  the  shipper  by  the  most  practicable  route,  provided  a  careful  inspec- 
tion shows  the  packages  to  be  in  proper  condition  for  safe  transportation. 

When  a  package  in  an  astray  shipment  is  not  in  proper  condition 
for  safe  transportation  (see  par.  1655),  or  when  name  and  address  of 
consignee  and  shipper  are  unknown,  disposition  will  be  made  as  pre- 
scribed by  paragraph  1656. 

Selection  and  Preparation  of  Cars. 

DANGEROUS   EXPLOSIVES. 

1661.  For  the  transportation  of  carloads  or  less-than-carload  lots 
of— 

Low  explosives, 
Black  powder, 
High  explosives, 
Wet  fulminate  of  mercury, 

Blasting  caps,  )  In  quantity  exceeding  1000  blasting  caps 

Electric  blasting  caps,   \      or  1000  electric  blasting  caps. 
Ammunition  for  cannon  with  explosive  projectiles, 
Explosive  projectiles, 
Explosive  torpedoes,  or 
Detonating  fuses, 
only  certified  and  placarded  box  cars  may  be  used. 

Certified  Car  Placarded  "  Explosives." 

1662.  Certified  cars  must  be  inspected  inside  and  outside  and  must 
conform  to  the  following  specifications: 

(a)  Box  car  not  less  than  60,000  pounds  capacity  with  friction  draft 
gear.  Steel  underframe  cars  should  be  used  when  available.  On 
narrow-gauge  and  other  railroads,  all  of  whose  freight  cars  are  of  less  than 
60,000  pounds  capacity,  explosives  may  be  transported  in  cars  of  less 
than  that  capacity,  provided  the  available  cars  of  greatest  capacity  and 
strength  are  used  for  this  purpose. 

(6)  Must  be  equipped  with  air  brakes  and  hand  brakes  in  condition 
for  service. 

(c)  Must  have  no  loose  boards  or  cracks  in  the  roof,  sides,  or  ends, 
through  which  sparks  may  enter. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     329 

(d)  The  doors  must  shut  so  closely  that  no  sparks  can  get  in  at 
the  joints,  and,  when  necessary,  they  must  be  stripped.     The  stripping 
for  doors  should  be  on  the  inside  and  be  fastened  to  the  door  frame  where 
it  will  form  a  shoulder  against  which  the  closed  door  is  pressed  by  means 
of  wedges  or  cleats  in  door  shoes  or  keepers.     The  openings  under  the 
doors  should  be  similarly  closed.     The  hasp  fastenings  must  be  examined 
with  doors  closed  and  fastened  and  must  be  cleated  when  necessary  to 
prevent  door  shifting. 

(e)  The  journal  boxes  and  trucks  must  be  carefully  examined  and 
put  in  such  condition  as  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  danger  of  hot 
boxes  or  other  failure  necessitating  the  setting  out  of  the  car  before 
reaching  destination.     The  lids   or   covers  of  journal   boxes  must  be 
in  place. 

(/)  The  car  must  be  carefully  swept  out  before  it  is  loaded.  For 
less-than-carload  shipments  the  space  in  which  the  packages  are  to 
be  loaded  must  be  carefully  swept. 

Holes  in  the  floor  or  lining  must  be  repaired  and  special  care  taken 
to  have  no  projecting  nails  or  bolts  or  exposed  pieces  of  metal  which 
may  work  loose  or  produce  holes  in  packages  of  explosives  during  transit. 

(0)  When  packages  of  explosives  are  to  be  loaded  over  exposed 
draft  bolts  or  kingbolts,  these  bolts  must  have  short  pieces  of  solid, 
sound  wood  with  beveled  ends  (2-inch  plank)  spiked  to  the  floor  over 
them  (or  empty  packages  of  the  same  character  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose)  to  prevent  possibility  of  their  wearing  into  the  packages  of 
explosives. 

\  (h)  The  roof  of  the  car  must  be  carefully  inspected  from  the  out- 
side for  decayed  spots  or  broken  boards,  especially  under  or  near  the 
running  board,  and  such  spots  must  be  covered  or  repaired  to  prevent 
their  holding  fire  from  sparks.  A  car  with  a  roof  generally  decayed, 
even  if  tight,  must  not  be  used. 

(1)  The  carrier  must  have  the  car  examined  by  a  competent  em- 
ployee to  see  that  it  is  properly  prepared,  and  must  have  a  "  Car  cer- 
tificate "  signed  in  triplicate  upon  the  prescribed  form  (see  par.  1665) 
before  permitting  the  car  to  be  loaded. 

(j)  Cars  not  in  proper  condition,  as  above  specified,  must  not  be 
furnished  to  the  shipper  or  used  for  the  transportation  of  explosives. 

Less  Dangerous  Explosives  in  Car  Placarded  "  Inflammable." 
1663.  (a)  Carloads  or  less-than-carload  lots  of — 
Ammunition  for  cannon  with  empty  projectiles, 
Ammunition  for  cannon  with  sand-loaded  projectiles, 
Ammunition  for  cannon  with  solid  projectiles, 


330  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Ammunition  for  cannon  without  projectiles, 

Smokeless  powder  for  small  arms, 

Smokeless  powder  for  cannon,  or 

Fireworks, 

may  be  loaded  in  any  box  car  which  is  in  good  condition  into  which 
sparks  cannot  enter  and  whose  roof  is  not  in  danger  of  taking  fire  through 
unprotected  decayed  wood.  These  cars  do  not  require  the  car  certificate 
but  must  have  attached  to  both  side  doors  and  both  ends  the  "  INFLAM- 
MABLE "  placard  prescribed  by  paragraph  1667,  and  the  doors  if  not 
tight  must  be  stripped  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  sparks. 

Relatively  Safe  Explosives  in  Car  Without  Placards. 

(6)  Carloads  or  less-than-carload  lots  of — 

Small-arms  ammunition, 

Small-arms  primers, 

Cannon  primers, 

Empty  cartridge  shells,  primed, 

Empty  cartridge  bags — black  powder  igniters, 

Combination  primers, 

Percussion  caps, 

Percussion  fuses, 

Time  fuses, 

Tracer  fuses, 

Combination  fuses, 

Safety  fuse, 

Cordeau  detonant, 

Safety  squibs, 

Empty  projectiles, 

Sand-loaded  projectiles, 

Solid  projectiles, 

Empty  torpedoes,  and  not  exceeding  1000  blasting  caps,  or  1000 

electric  blasting  caps, 

may  be  loaded  in  any  box  car  which  is  in  good  condition,  without  car 
certificate  or  placards. 

(c)  When  specially  authorized  by  the  carrier,  explosives  in  quantity 
not  exceeding  150  pounds  may  be  carried  in  construction  or  repair 
cars  when  the  packages  of  explosives  are  placed  in  a  "  magazine  "  box 
made  of  sound  lumber  not  less  than  1  inch  thick,  covered  on  the  exte- 
rior with  metal,  and  provided  with  strong  handles.  This  box  must 
be  plainly  stenciled  on  the  top,  sides,  and  ends,  in  letters  not  less  than 
2  inches  high,  "  EXPLOSIVES— DANGEROUS— HANDLE  CARE- 
FULLY." The  box  must  be  provided  with  strong  hinges  and  with 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     331 

a  lock  for  keeping  it  securely  closed.  Vacant  space  in  the  box  must 
be  filled  with  a  cushioning  material  such  as  sawdust  or  excelsior,  and 
the  box  must  be  properly  stayed  in  the  car  to  prevent  movement.  The 
car,  when  not  occupied  by  a  responsible  employee,  must  be  placarded 
"  EXPLOSIVES." 

Placarding  of  Cars  and  Certification  of  Contents. 

1664.  Uniform  practice  is  important  and  the  prescribed  forms  of 
car  certificate  and  placards  must  be  used. 

1665.  (a)  Car  certificate. — The  following  certificate  (prescribed  by 
par.  1662  (i),  printed  on  strong  tagboard  measuring  7  by  7  inches,  must 
be  duly  executed  in  triplicate  by  the  carrier,  and  by  the  shipper  if  he  loads 
the  shipment.     The  original  must  be  filed  by  the  carrier  at  the  forward- 
ing station  on  a  separate  file,  and  the  other  two  must  be  attached  to  the 
outside  of  the  car  doors,  one  on  each  side,  the  lower  edge  of  the  certi- 
ficate not  less  than  4|  feet  above  the  floor  level. 

(6)  At  stations  where  explosives  are  loaded  into  a  properly  certified 
and  placarded  car  received  with  other  shipments  of  explosives,  or  car- 
load shipments  are  reconsigned,  a  record  must  be  kept  of  the  car,  orig- 
inating point,  carrier's  name  and  date  of  car  certificate. 

CAR    CERTIFICATE. 

No.  1.  Station, ,  19 — . 

I  hereby  certify  that  I  have  this  day  personally  examined —  car  No. 

and  that  the  roof  and  sides  have  no  loose  boards,  holes,  or  cracks,  or  unprotected 
decayed  spots  liable  to  hold  sparks  and  start  a  fire;  that  the  kingbolts  or  draft 
bolts  are  properly  protected  and  that  there  are  no  uncovered  irons  or  nails  pro- 
jecting from  the  floor  or  sides  of  the  car  which  might  injure  packages  of  explosives; 
also  that  the  floor  is  in  good  condition  and  has  this  day  been  cleanly  swept  before  the 
car  was  loaded ;  that  I  have  examined  all  the  axle  boxes  and  that  they  are  properly 
covered,  packed,  and  oiled,  and  that  the  air  brakes  and  hand  brakes  are  in  condi- 
tion for  service. 


Railway  employee  inspecting  car. 


No.  2  Station, ,  19—. 

I  hereby  certify  that  I  have  this  day  personally  examined  the  above  car; 
that  the  floor  is  in  good  condition  and  has  been  cleanly  swept  and  that  the  roof 
and  sides  have  no  loose  boards,  holes,  cracks,  or  unprotected  decayed  spots  liable 
to  hold  sparks  and  start  a  fire;  that  the  kingbolts  and  draft  bolts  are  protected, 
and  that  there  are  no  uncovered  irons  or  nails  projecting  from  the  floor  or  sides 
of  the  car  which  might  injure  packages  of  explosives;  that  the  explosives  in  this 
car  have  been  loaded  and  stayed  and  that  the  car  has  been  placarded  according 
to  paragraphs  1644  to  1651,  inclusive,  1661,  and  1666,  of  the  Regulations  for  the 
Transportation  of  Explosives  prescribed  by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion; that  the  doors  fit  or  have  been  stripped  so  that  sparks  cannot  get  in  at  the 
joints  or  bottom. 


Shipper. 


Railway  employee  inspecting  loading  and  staying. 

NOTE. — Both  certificates  must  be  signed,  Certificate  No.  1  by  the  represen- 
tative of  the  carrier.     For  all  shipments  loaded  by  the  shipper  he  or  his  authorized 


332 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


agent  must  sign  certificate  No.  2,  and  the  representative  of  the  carrier  must 
certify  as  to  loading  and  staying  and  general  condition.  When  the  car  is  not 
loaded  by  shipper,  certificate  No.  2  must  be  signed  only  by  the  representative  of 
the  carrier.  A  shipper  should  decline  to  use  a  car  not  in  proper  condition. 

"  Explosive  "  Placard 

1666.  Placard. — A  certified  car  for  the  dangerous  explosives  speci- 
fied in  paragraph  1661  must  be  protected  by  attaching  to  each  outside 
end  and  side  door,  the  lower  edge  not  less  than  4|  feet  above  the  car 
floor,  a  standard  placard  12  by  14  inches,  on  which  appears  in  con- 
spicuous red  and  black  printing  on  strong  tag  board  the  following 
notice : 


EXPLOSIVES 


HANDLE  CAREFULLY 

KEEP  FIRE  A  WAT 


>  BE  PRINTED  IN  RED- 


STATION 

CONDENSED  RULES  FOR  HANDLING  THIS  CAR 


•2.  Cars  containing  explosives  must 
center  of  train  and  may  be  together  if  desired;  mu»t 
be  at  least  IS  car.  from  engine  and  10  car.  from 
taboo*  when  length  of  train  will  permit 

3.  Thi>  car  must  not  be  placed  next  to  car. 
bearing  the  inflammable  or  the  acid  placard  or 
cart  containing  lighted  heater..  Whenever  it  u 
pouibie  to  avoid  to  doing  it  mutt  not  be  placed  next 
to  tank  can  or  flat  car.  or  next  to  carloads  of  lumber, 
pole.,  iron,  pipe,  or  other  articles  liable  to  break 
through  5nd  ofYar  from  rough  handling. 


4.  The  air  and  hand  braKes  on  tMs  car  must  be 
in  service. 

5.  In  shifting  have  a  car  between  this  car  and 
engine  whenever  possible,  and  do  not  cut  this  car  off 

fi!"  Avoid"..!!  shocks  to  this  car  and  couple  care- 

"  'j.    Avoid  placing  it  near  a  possible  source  of  fire. 

8.     Engines  on  parallel  track  must  not  be  allowed 

to  stand  opposite  or  near  this  car  when  it  can  be 

*V019.     This  placard  must  be  removed  from  car  when 
the  explosives  are  unloaded. 


NOTE. — Carriers  will  be  permitted  to  use  their  present  supply  of  placards, 
but  all  new  supplies  must  conform  to  the  amended  form. 

"  Inflammable  "  Placard. 

1667.  A  placard  of  diamond  shape  printed  on  strong  tag  board 
measuring  lOf  inches  on  each  side  and  bearing  in  red  and  black  letters 
the  inscription  prescribed  by  paragraph  1913  must  be  placed  on  each 
outside  end  and  side  door  of  a  car  containing  any  quantity  of  smokeless 
powder  for  cannon,  or  smokeless  powder  for  small  arms,  or  ammunition 
for  cannon  with  empty  projectiles,  or  ammunition  for  cannon  with  sand- 
loaded  projectiles,  or  ammunition  for  cannon  with  solid  projectiles,  or 
ammunition  for  cannon  without  projectiles,  or  fireworks. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     333 

Handling  Cars  Containing  Explosives. 

1680.  The  phrase  "  cars  containing  explosives  "  as  used  in  this  and 
subsequent  paragraphs,  excepting  paragraph  1697,  refers  to  the  dan- 
gerous explosives  specified  in  paragraph  1661,  which  require  a  certified 
car  placarded  "  EXPLOSIVES." 

1681.  Under  no  circumstances  must  a  car  known  to  require  the 
"  EXPLOSIVE  "  placard  be  taken  from  a  station,  including  transfer 
stations  or  interchange  points,  a  siding,  or  yard,  unless  it  is  properly 
placarded  as  per  paragraphs  1665  and  1666,  nor  unless  the  car  is  in 
proper   condition.    The   carrier   must   see   that   its   representative   in 
charge  of  a  freight  train  makes  a  thorough  check  of  the  cars  bearing 
"  INFLAMMABLE,"  "  ACID,"  and  "  EXPLOSIVE  "  placards  with 
the  billing  to  see  that  all  placards  required  are  attached  and  that  those 
not  required  are  removed. 

1682.  Every  possible  effort  must  be  made  to  expedite  the  move- 
ment of  cars   containing  explosives,   and  no  unnecessary  delay  must 
occur  at  initial,  interchange,  or  transfer  stations. 

1683.  When  a  car  containing  explosives  is  in  a  train,  the  carrier 
must  make  proper  provision  for  notifying  its  train  and  engine  employees 
of  the  presence  and  location  of  such  car  in  the  train  before  leaving  the 
initial  station. 

1684.  Such  cars  must  be  frequently  inspected  to  see  that  the  pla- 
cards and  car  certificates  are  intact.     Whenever  any  of  these  become 
detached  or  lost  in  transit,  they  must  be    replaced  on  arrival  at    the 
next  division  terminal  yard,  if  in  through  freight  train,  or  at  first  station 
stop  if  in  local  freight  train. 

1685.  On  lines  where  regular  trains  are  operated  for  freight  service 
only,  cars  containing  explosives  must  not  be  hauled  in  a  train  that 
carries  passengers.     Where  only  a  mixed  train  service  is  operated  or 
where  passengers  are  carried  in  the  caboose  car  of  a  freight  train,  a  car 
containing  a  freight  shipment  of  explosives  may  be  hauled,  but  it  must 
not  be  placed  next  to  a  car  carrying  passengers,  and  whenever  it  is 
practicable  to  do  so,  such  a  car  or  cars  must  be  placed  between  freight 
cars  not  bearing  "  ACID  "  or  "  INFLAMMABLE  "  placards.    Cars 
containing  explosives  must  have  air  and  hand  brakes  in  service. 

1686.  (a)  In  through  freight  trains  they  must  be  placed  near  the 
middle  of  the  train,  and  two  or  more  such  cars  may  be  placed  together 
if  desired.    They  must  be  at  least  15  cars  from  the  engine  and  10  cars 
from  the  caboose  when  length  of  the  train  will  permit.     They  must 
not  be  placed  next  to  cars  bearing  the  "  INFLAMMABLE  "  or  the 
"ACID"  placard, « or  cars  containing  lighted  heaters.     Whenever  it 


334  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

is  possible  to  avoid  so  doing  they  must  not  be  placed  next  to  tank  cars 
or  wooden-frame  flat  cars  or  next  to  carloads  of  lumber,  poles,  iron, 
pipe,  or  other  articles  to  break  through  end  of  car  from  rough  handling. 
(b)  These  requirements  apply  also  to  local  freight  trains  except 
that  to  avoid  the  danger  of  otherwise  unnecessary  switching  at  way 
stations,  cars  containing  explosives  may  be  placed  not  closer  than  the 
second  car  from  caboose  or  the  second  car  from  engine.  They  must 
be  placed  between  cars  that  do  not  bear  the  "  INFLAMMABLE  "  or 
"  ACID  "  placards,  if  such  cars  are  in  the  train. 

1687.  (a)  If   shipments   of   explosives   are   accepted   at   nonagency 
stations,  provision  must  be  made  for  the  proper  certification  and  pla- 
carding of  cars,  examination  of  shipments,  and  loading  and  staying 
of  packages  in  cars. 

(b)  Shipments  of  explosives  must  not  be  unloaded  at  nonagency 
stations  unless  the  consignee  is  there  to  receive  them,  or  unless  proper 
storage  facilities  are  provided  at  that  point  for  their  protection. 

1688.  When   handling   cars   containing   explosives   in   yards   or   on 
sidings,  they  must,  if  it  is  practically  possible,  be  coupled  to  the  engine, 
protected  by  a  car  between,  and  they  must  never  be  cut  off  while  in 
motion. 

Cars  containing  explosives  must  not  be  handled  in  switching  or 
in  trains,  with  doors  open. 

1689.  They  must  be  coupled  carefully   and  all   unnecessary   shocks 
must  be  avoided.     Other  cars  must  not  be  cut  off  and  allowed  to  strike 
a  car  containing  explosives.     They  must  be  so  placed  in  yards  or  on 
sidings  that  they  will  be  subject  to  as  little  handling  as  possible,  and  be 
removed  from  all  danger  of  fire.     They  must  not  be  placed  on  tracks 
under  bridges,  and,  when  avoidable,  engines  on  parallel  tracks  must 
not  be  allowed  to  stand  opposite  or  near  them. 

1690.  At  points  where  trains  stop  and  time  permits,  cars  contain- 
ing explosives  and  adjacent  cars  must  be  examined  to  see  that  they 
are  in  good  condition  and  free  from  hot  boxes  or  other  defects  liable 
to  cause  damage.     If  cars  containing  explosives  are  set  out  short  of 
destination  for  any  cause  the  carrier  must  arrange   that  proper  notice 
be  given  to  prevent  accident. 

1691.  Whenever  a  car  containing  explosives  is  opened  for  any  pur- 
pose and  in  every  instance  after  such  a  car  has  received  rough  treat- 
ment, inspection  must  be  made  of  the  packages  of  explosives  as  soon  as 
practicable  without  unnecessary  disturbance  of  lading  to  see  that  they 
are  properly  loaded  and  stayed  and  in  good   condition.    Upon  the 
discovery  of  leaking  or  broken  packages,  they  must  be  carefully  removed 
to  a  safe  place.    Loose  powder  or  other  explosives  must  be  swept  up  and 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     335 

carefully  removed.  If  the  floor  is  wet  with  nitroglycerin,  the  car  is 
unsafe  to  use  and  a  representative  of  the  Bureau  of  Explosives  should 
be  immediately  called  to  superintend  the  through  mopping  and  washing 
of  the  floor  with  a  warm,  saturated  solution  of  concentrated  lye  or  sodium 
carbonate.  If  necessary,  the  car  must  be  placed  on  an  isolated  siding 
and  proper  notice  given. 

1692.  Removal  of  Placards. — The  certificates  and  placards  pre- 
scribed in  paragraphs  1665,  1666,  and  1667  must  be  removed  from 
the  car  as  soon  as  the  explosives  are  unloaded. 

In  Case  of  a  Wreck. 

1697.  In  case  of  a  wreck  involving  a  car  containing  explosives,  the 
first  and  most  important  precaution  is  to  prevent  fire.  Before  begin- 
ning to  clear  a  wreck  in  which  a  car  containing  explosives  is  involved  all 
unbroken  packages  should  be  removed  to  a  place  of  safety  and  as  much 
of  the  broken  packages  as  possible  gathered  up  and  likewise  removed, 
and  the  rest  saturated  with  water.  Many  explosives  are  readily  fired 
by  a  blow  or  by  the  spark  produced  when  two  pieces  of  metal  or  a  piece 
of  metal  and  a  stone  come  violently  together.  In  clearing  a  wreck, 
therefore,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  strike  fire  with  tools,  and  in  using 
the  crane  or  locomotive  to  tear  the  wreckage  in  pieces  the  possibility  of 
producing  sparks  must  be  considered.  With  most  explosives  thorough 
wetting  with  water  practically  removes  all  danger  of  explosion  by  spark 
or  blow;  but  with  the  dynamites  wetting  does  not  make  them  safe  from 
blows.  With  all  explosives  mixing  with  wet  earth  renders  them  safer 
from  either  fire,  spark,  or  blow.  In  case  fulminate  has  been  scattered 
by  a  wreck,  after  the  wreck  has  been  cleared  the  wet  surface  of  the 
ground  should  be  removed,  and,  after  saturating  the  area  with  oil,  be 
replaced  by  fresh  earth.  If  this  is  not  done,  when  the  ground  and  ful- 
minate become  dry  small  explosions  may  occur  when  the  mixed  material 
is  trodden  on  or  struck. 


336  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EX- 
PLOSIVES AND  OTHER  DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  BY 
EXPRESS. 

Prescribed  under  act  of  Mar.  4,  1909,  and  sec.  15  of  the  act  to  regulate  commerce  as  amended 
June  18,  1910.  Originally  formulated  and  published  Jan.  1,  1912,  effective  Mar.  31, 
1912.  Revision  formulated  and  published  July  2,  1914.  Effective  on  October  1, 
1914,  and  superseding  the  regulations  published  Jan.  1,  1912. 


GENERAL  NOTICE. 

A.  Special  precautions  are  necessary  in  preparing  for  shipment  by 
express    packages    of    explosives    and    other    dangerous    articles.     Any 
failure  of  the  shipper  or  of  a  carrier  to  perform  the  duties  imposed  upon 
him  in  this  respect  may  be  the  actual  or  contributory  cause  of  a  serious 
accident  or  fire. 

B.  Sections  235  and  236  of  the  act  of  March  4,  1909,  require  the 
shipper  of  explosives  or  other  dangerous  articles  to  describe  and  mark 
his  package  properly,  and  to  inform  the  agent  of  the  carrier  of  the  true 
character  of  the  contents.     Heavy  penalties  are  provided  for  the  shipper 
who  knowingly  offers  for  transportation  a  dangerous  article  without 
complying  with  these  requirements,  as  well  as  for  the  carrier  that  know- 
ingly transports  it. 

C.  To  promote  the  uniform  enforcement  of  the  law  and  to  provide 
for  the  safe  transportation  by  express  service  in  interstate  commerce 
of  such  explosives  and  other  dangerous  articles  as  can  be  transported 
legally  and  safely  on*  passenger  trains,  the  following  regulations  are  pre- 
scribed to  define  these  articles  for  express  transportation  purposes,  to 
state  the  precautions  that  must  be  observed  by  the  shipper  in  prepar- 
ing them  for  shipment  and  by  the  express  carrier  in  handling  them 
while  in  transit. 

D.  The  Bureau  for  the  Safe  Transportation  of  Explosives  and  Other 
Dangerous  Articles,  hereinafter  called  Bureau  of  Explosives,  organized 
by  the  railways  under  the  auspices  of  the  American  Railway  Association, 
is  an  efficient  bureau  in  charge  of  an  expert  chief  inspector.     This  bureau 
will  make  inspections  and  conduct  investigations,  and  will  confer  with 
manufacturers  and  shippers  and  express  carriers  with  a  view  of  deter- 
mining what  specifications  and  regulations  will,  within  reasonable  limits, 
afford  the  highest  degree*  of  safety  in  packing  and  preparing  dangerous 
articles  for  shipment  and  in  transporting  the  same.     The  Commission 
will  seek  to  avail  itself  of  the  expert  knowledge  thus  developed  and  in 
formulating  amendments  to  these  regulations,  while  not  bound  thereby, 
will  give  due  weight  to  such  expert  opinions. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     337 

E.  These  regulations  apply  to  all  shipments  of  explosives  or  other 
dangerous  articles  as  defined  herein,  including  carriers'  material  and 
supplies. 

F.  Shipments  of  dangerous  articles  which  under  these  regulations 
may  be  transported  by  express,  and  which  under  individual  carriers' 
regulations  are  transported  as  baggage  on  passenger  trains,  must  be 
packed,  marked,  and  labeled  as   prescribed   herein  for  express  ship- 
ments. 

G.  Express  carriers  that  are  subject  to  the  act  to  regulate  com- 
merce and  shippers  must  make  these  regulations  effective,  and  must 
provide  for  the  thorough  instruction  of  their  employees  therein.    Ex- 
press carriers  must  not  receive  shipments  of  articles  defined  as  dangerous 
by  these  regulations  when  the  shipments  are  not  packed,  marked,  labeled, 
described,  and  certified  as  prescribed  herein. 

H.  Explosives  and  other  dangerous  articles  the  transportation  of 
which  by  passenger  trains  is  prohibited  by  law  must  not  be  offered 
for  shipment.  The  method  of  manufacturing  and  packing  articles 
defined  as  dangerous  by  these  regulations,  so  far  as  it  affects  safe  trans- 
portation, must  be  open  to  inspection  by  a  duly  authorized  representa- 
tive of  the  initial  carrier,  or  of  the  Bureau  of  Explosives, 

GENERAL  RULES. 

1.  All  shipments  of  articles  subject  to  these  regulations  offered  for 
transportation  by  express   in   interstate    commerce   must   be   properly 
described  by  the  shipper,  and  the  proper  and  definite  name  of  the  dan- 
gerous article  must  be  marked  on  the  outside  of  the  package,  in  addition 
to  the  labels  required  herein. 

2.  (a)  Articles  for  which  detailed  instructions  for  packing  are  not 
given  herein  must  be  securely  packed  in  containers  strong  enough  to 
stand  without  rupture  or  leakage  of  contents  a  drop  of  4  feet  to  solid 
brick  or  concrete. 

(6)  Whenever  orders  are  placed  in  foreign  countries  for  the  importa- 
tion of  dangerous  articles  to  be  forwarded  from  port  of  entry  by  express, 
the  importer  must  furnish  with  the  order  to  the  foreign  shipper  and 
also  to  the  forwarding  agent  at  the  port  of  entry,  full  and  complete 
information  as  to  the  necessary  packing,  marking,  and  labeling  required 
by  these  regulations.  The  forwarding  agent  must  see  that  the  packages 
are  properly  packed,  marked,  and  labeled. 

(c)  Unless  specifically  authorized  by  these  regulations,  acceptable 
explosives  must  not  be  packed  in  the  same  outside  package  with  each 
other  or  with  other  articles. 


338  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Information  and  Definitions. 
Grouping. 

3.  For  transportation  by  express,  explosives  and  other  dangerous 
articles  are  divided  into  the  following  groups : 

1.  Forbidden  articles. 

2.  Acceptable  explosives. 

3.  Acceptable  dangerous  articles. 

Group  1.— Forbidden  Articles. 

4.  Except  when  shipped  by  the  War  or  Navy  Department  of  the 
United  States  Government  in  time  of  war  or  of  threatened  war,  the 
following  articles  must  not  be  shipped  by  express,  except  as  provided 
in  section  232  of  the  act  of  March  4,  1909.     (See  par.  5  (a)  ): 

(a)  Low  explosives  or  black  powder. 

(6)  High  explosives,  including  nitroglycerin  explosives,  chlorate 
powders,  nitrate  of  ammonia  powders,  dry  picric  acid,1  dry  picrates, 
dry  nitrocellulose  (gun  cotton,  negative  cotton),  dry  nitrostarch  or  dry 
trinitrotoluol. 

(c)  Smokeless  powder  for  cannon. 

(d)  Smokeless   powder  for  small   arms,   except  in  ammunition  for 
small  arms. 

(e)  Fulminate  of  mercury  or  of  any  other  metal,  except  in  manu- 
factured products  not  forbidden. 

(/)   Blasting  caps,  including  electric  blasting  caps. 

(g)  Ammunition  for  cannon,  with  or  without  projectiles. 

(h)  Detonating  fuses. 

(i)   Explosive  projectiles. 

0')   Liquid  nitroglycerin. 

(k)  Fireworks  that  combine  an  explosive  and  a  detonator  or  blast- 
ing cap. 

(/)  Fireworks  containing  a  match  tip  or  head,  or  similar  igniting 
point  or  surface,  unless  each  such  individual  tip,  head,  igniting  point, 
or  surface  is  entirely  covered  and  securely  protected  from  accidental 
contact  or  friction  with  any  other  surface. 

(m)  Fireworks  that  ignite  spontaneously  or  undergo  marked  decom- 
position when  subjected  for  forty-eight  consecutive  hours  to  the  tem- 
perature of  75°  C.  (167°  F.). 

(n)  Firecrackers  whose  dimensions  exceed  5  inches   in  length  or 

1  Picric  acid  for  medicinal  purposes,  and  not  exceeding  4  ounces  in  one  outside  package, 
may  be  shipped  without  other  restrictions  .when  in  securely  closed  glass  bottles,  properly 
cushioned  to  prevent  breakage. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     339 

f  inch  in  diameter,  or  whose  explosive  charges  exceed  45  grains  each 
in  weight. 

(o)  Toy  torpedoes  exceeding  1£  inches  in  diameter,  or  toy  caps 
containing  more  than  an  average  of  thirty-five-one  hundredths  of  a 
grain  of  explosive  composition  per  cap. 

(p)  Fireworks  that  can  be  exploded  en  masse  by  a  blasting  cap 
placed  in  one  of  the  units,  or  by  impact  of  a  rifle  bullet,  or  otherwise. 

(q)  Explosives  or  other  dangerous  articles  properly  condemned  by 
the  Bureau  of  Explosives  (except  properly  repacked  samples  for  labora- 
tory examination). 

(r)  Outside  packages '  containing  in  the  same  compartment  interior 
packages  the  mixture  of  whose  contents  would  be  liable  to  cause  a  danger- 
ous evolution  of  heat,  gas,  or  corrosive  materials. 

(a)  Cylinders  containing  gases  capable  of  combining  chemically. 

00  Packages  containing  a  dangerous  article  in  a  leaky  condition, 
or  in  such  an  insecure  condition  as  to  make  leakage  probable  during 
transit. 

(u)  Rags  or  cotton  waste  oily  with  more  than  5  per  cent  of  animal 
or  vegetable  oil,  or  wet  rags. 

(v)  Boxes  or  kegs  that  have  been  previously  used  for  high  explosives 
must  not  be  again  used  for  shipments  of  any  character. 

(w)  Carbon  bisulphide,  pyroxylin  scrap  (celluloid,  fiberloid,  pyra- 
lin,  viscoloid,  zylonite,  etc.,  scrap),  charcoal  screenings,  and  white 
or  yellow  phosphorus  except  as  provided  in  paragraph  42  (6). 

Group  2.— Acceptable  Explosives. 

5.  The  following  explosives  may  be  accepted  for  transportation 
by  express,  when  offered  in  compliance  with  these  regulations: 

(a)  Samples  of  explosives  for  laboratory  examination,  when  prop- 
erly packed  and  riot  exceeding  a  net  weight  of  \  pound  for  each  sample, 
and  not  exceeding  twenty  such  samples  at  one  time  in  a  single  vessel  or 
vehicle.  (See  pars.  4,  6,  and  14.) 

(6)  Small-arms  ammunition. 

(c)  Small-arms  primers. 

(d)  Cannon  primers. 

(e)  Percussion  fuses,  including  tracer  fuses. 
(/)  Time  or  combination  fuses. 

(g)  Safety  fuse. 

(h)  Cordeau  detonant. 

(0    Safety  squibs. 

(f)  Common  fireworks  and  special  fireworks  except  when  forbid- 
den.    (See  par.  4.) 


340  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

DEFINITIONS  OF  ACCEPTABLE  EXPLOSIVES. 

6.  The  only  samples  of  explosives  that  can  lawfully  be  shipped  by 
express  are  those  intended  for  examination  in  a  laboratory  and  not 
intended  for  use  or  demonstration. 

7.  Small-arms  ammunition  (such  as  is  used  in  sporting  or  fowling 
pieces  or  in  rifle  or  pistol  practice,  etc.)  consists  usually  of  a  paper  or 
metallic  shell,  the  primer,  and  the  powder  charge — with  or  without 
shot  or  bullet — the  materials  necessary  for  one  firing  being  all  in  one 
piece. 

8.  Percussion  and  time  fuses  and  primers  are  devices  used  to  ignite 
the  black-powder  bursting  charges  of  projectiles  or  the  powder  charges 
of  ammunition.     For  small-arms  ammunition  the  primers  are  usually 
called    "  small-arms    primers "    or    "  percussion    caps."     Tracer  fuses 
consist  of  a  device  which  is  attached  to  a  projectile  and  contains  a  slow- 
burning  composition,  to  show  the  flight  of  projectiles  at  night. 

9.  (a)  Safety  fuse  consists  ordinarily  of  a  core  of  granular  black 
powder,  which  is  surrounded  by  yarn,  tape,  pitch,  rubber,  etc. 

(6)  Cordeau  detonant  is  a  fuse  containing  trinitrotoluol  assembled 
in  a  drawn  lead  tube. 

10.  Safety  squibs  are  small  paper  tubes  containing  a  small  quantity 
of  black  powder,  one  end  of  each  tube  being  twisted  and  generally 
tipped  with  sulphur. 

11.  Fireworks  include  everything  that  is  designed  and  manufac- 
tured primarily  for  the  purpose  of  producing  a  visible  or  audible  pyro- 
technic effect  by  combustion  or  by  explosion.    They  consist  of  com- 
mon fireworks  and  special  fireworks. 

12.  Common  fireworks   include   all  that  depend  principally  upon 
nitrates  to  support  combustion,  and  not  upon  chlorates;    that  contain 
no  phosphorus  and  no  high  explosive  sensitive  to  shock  or  friction; 
that  produce  their  effect  through  color  display  rather  than  by  loud 
noises.     If  noise  is  the  principal  object,  the  units  must  be  small  and 
of  such  nature  and  manufacture  that  they  will  explode  separately  and 
harmlessly,  if  at  all,  when  one  unit  is  ignited  in  a  packing  case.     They 
must  not  be  designed  for  ignition  by  shock  or  friction.     Examples  are 
Chinese  firecrackers,  Roman  candles,  pin  wheels,  colored  fires,  rockets, 
serpents,  railway  fusees,  flash  powders,  etc. 

13.  Special  fireworks  include  all  that  contain  any  quantity  of  phos- 
phorus, a  fulminate,  or  other  high  explosive  sensitive  to  shock  or  fric- 
tion;  or  that  contain  units  of  such  size  that  the  explosion  of  one  while 
being  handled  would  produce  a  serious  injury;    or  that  require  a  spe- 
cial appliance  or  tool,  mortar,  holder,  etc.,  for  their  safe  use;   or  that 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     341 


are  designed  for  ignition  by  shock  or  friction.  Examples  are  giant 
firecrackers,  bombs,  and  salutes  not  forbidden  by  paragraph  4,  toy 
torpedoes  and  caps,  ammunition  pellets  fired  in  a  special  holder,  rail- 
way torpedoes,  etc. 

PACKING  AND  MARKING  OF  ACCEPTABLE  EXPLOSIVES. 

14.  Packing. — Samples    of   explosives   for   laboratory   examination 
must  be  placed  in  well-secured  metal  cans  or  glass  bottles,  or  in  strong 
waterproof  paper  or  cardboard  packages,   containing  not  more  than 
^  pound  each,  and  the  interior  package  must  be  placed  in  dry  sawdust 
or  similar  cushioning  material  in  a  strong  and  tight  wooden  box,  with 
ends  not  less  than  1  inch  thick,  and  top,  bottom,  and  sides  not  less 
than  \  inch  thick  when  a  nailed  box  is  used,  or  with  ends,  top,  bottom, 
and  sides  not  less  than  f  inch  thick  when  of  lock-cornered  construction. 

15.  Weight. — Not  more  than  20  half-pound  samples  of  explosives 
for  laboratory  examination  may  be  placed  in  one  outside  box  or  trans- 
ported at  one  time. 

16.  Marking. — Each   outside   package   containing   samples   of   ex- 
plosives for  laboratory  examination  must  have  securely  and  conspicu- 
ously attached  to  it  a  square,  red.  certificate  label  measuring  4  inches 
on  each  side  and  bearing  in  black  letters  the  following; 


4  Inches 


EXPLOSIVE 


Sample  for  Laboratory 
Examination 


HANDLE    CAREFULLY 
KEEP    FIRE    AWAY 


THU  I*  to  certify  tfcat  tfi.  a»«*«  artletaa  «r»  pr»p«rfy  tfcMrik* 
•I  n«m«  «nd  mrm  peeked  and  marked  and  are  In  pr«par  oentfltla*  far 
transportation,  aeeerdlnf  to  th*  rag  ulatlona  pr..ori».d  ky  the  later* 
•UU e*mmoroe  Commission. 


Red  label  for  samples  of  explosives.      (Reduced  size.) 


342  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 


PACKING  AND  MARKING  OF  SMALL-ARMS  AMMUNITION,  PRIMERS,  FUSES, 
SAFETY  FUSE,  AND  SAFETY  SQUIBS. 

17.  Small-arms  ammunition  must  be  packed  in  pasteboard  or  other 
boxes,  and  these  pasteboard  or  other  boxes  must  be  packed  in  strong 
outside    wooden    or    metal    containers.     Small-arms    ammunition,    in 
pasteboard  or  other  boxes  and  in  quantity  not  exceeding  a  gross  weight 
of  75  pounds,  may  be  packed  with  nonexplosive  and  noninflammable 
articles,  and  with  small-arms  primers  or  percussion  caps,  provided  the 
outside  wooden  or  metal  package  is  plainly  marked  "  SMALL-ARMS 
AMMUNITION." 

18.  Primers  and  percussion  and  time  fuses  must  be  packed  in 
strong,  tight,  wooden  or  metal  containers,  with  special  provision  for  se- 
curing individual  packages  of  primers  and  fuses  against  movement  in 
container. 

19.  Small-arms  primers  containing  anvils  must  be  packed  in  cellu- 
lar packages   with   partitions   separating   the   layers   and   columns    of 
primers,  so  that  the  explosion  of  a  portion  of  the  primers  in  the  com- 
pleted shipping  package  will  not   cause   the   explosion   of   all   of   the 
primers. 

20.  Percussion  caps  may  be  packed  in  metal  or  other  boxes  con- 
taining not  more  than  500  caps,  but  the  construction  of  the  cap  and 
the  kind  and  quantity  of  explosives  in  each  must  be  such  that  the  explo- 
sion of  a  part  of  the  caps  in  the  completed  shipping  package  will  not  cause 
the  explosion  of  all  of  the  caps. 

21.  Small-arms  primers  and  percussion  caps  may  form  a  part  of 
the  gross  weight  of  75  pounds  of  small-arms  ammunition  that  may  be 
packed  with  other  articles  as  authorized  by  paragraph  17. 

22.  Safety  fuse,  cordeau  detonant,  and  safety  squibs    must  be 
packed  in  strong,  tight  wooden  boxes  or  barrels. 

23.  Weight. — The  gross  weight  of  one  outside  package  containing 
small-arms    ammunition,    primers,    percussion    caps,    or    percussion   or 
time  fuses  must  not  exceed  150  pounds. 

24.  Marking. — Each  outside  box  must  be  plainly  marked  "  SMALL- 
ARMS      AMMUNITION/'      or       "SMALL-ARMS       PRIMERS- 
HANDLE    CAREFULLY,"    or    "PERCUSSION    CAPS— HANDLE 
CAREFULLY,"    or     "CANNON     PRIMERS— HANDLE     CARE- 
FULLY,"   or    "COMBINATION      PRIMERS— HANDLE      CARE- 
FULLY," or  "PERCUSSION    FUSES— HANDLE    CAREFULLY," 
or     "COMBINATION      FUSES— HANDLE     CAREFULLY," 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.     343 

or  "TRACER  FUSES— HANDLE  CAREFULLY,"  or  "SAFETY 
FUSE,"  "CORDEAU  DETONANT,"  or  "SAFETY 
SQUIBS,"  etc. 

PACKING  AND  MARKING  OF  FIREWORKS. 

25.  (a)  Common  fireworks  must  be  in  a  finished  state,  exclusive 
of  mere  ornamentation,  as  supplied  to  the  retail  trade,  and  must  be 
securely   packed   in   strong,    tight,    spark-proof   wooden    barrels    com- 
plying with  specification  No.  11,  or  in  wooden  boxes  complying  with 
specification  No.  12A. 

(6)  Special  fireworks  must  be  in  a  finished  state,  exclusive  of  mere 
ornamentation,  as  supplied  to  the  retail  trade,  and  must  not  contain 
forbidden  explosives.  (See  par.  4.)  They  must  be  packed  in  strong, 
spark-proof  wooden  barrels  that  comply  with  specification  No.  11  or 
in  wooden  boxes  that  comply  with  specification  No.  12. 

26.  Weight. — The  gross  weight  of  one  outside  package  containing 
common  fireworks  must  not  exceed  200  pounds,  and  the  gross  weight 
of  one  outside  package  containing  special  fireworks  must  not  exceed 
100  pounds;    the  gross  weight  of  an  outside  package  containing  only 
toy  torpedoes  must  not  exceed  65  pounds. 

27.  Marking. — All   outside   boxes   or   barrels    containing   common 
fireworks    must    be    plainly    marked    "COMMON    FIREWORKS- 
KEEP  FIRE  AWAY,"  and  all  outside  boxes  or  barrels  containing 
special  fireworks  or  a  mixture  of  common  and  special  fireworks  must 
be    plainly    marked    "SPECIAL    FIREWORKS— HANDLE    CARE- 
FULLY—KEEP FIRE  AWAY,"  in  letters  not  less  than  •&  inch  in 
height. 

28.  Label. — Each  outside  package  containing    common  or  special 
fireworks  must  have  securely  and  conspicuously  attached  to  it  a  square, 
red  certificate  label  measuring  4  inches  on  each  side  and  bearing  in 
black  letters  the  following: 


344 


NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

4  Inches    


FIREWORKS 


HANDLE   CAREFULLY 

KEEP    FIRE   AWAY 
DO  NOT  DROP  NOR  THROW 


This  package  must  not  be  loaded  OP 

stored  near  steam  pipes  or 

other  source  of  heat 


This  t»Ue«rtlfy  that  tho  above  articles  are  , 


<c»0rlb«. 


•y  Ham*  and  arc  packed  and  marked  and  are  In  proper  condition  for 
transportation,  according  to  the  regulations  prescribed  »j  the  Inter* 
•tate  Commerce  Commission. 


Red  label  for  fireworks.     (Reduced  size.) 


j 


NOTE — For  information  covering  transportation  of  dangerous  in- 
flammable articles  other  than  explosives,  and  for  specifications  for 
shipping  containers,  etc.,  consult  latest  complete  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  Regulations  for  Transportation  of  Explosives  and  Other- 
Dangerous  Articles  by  Freight  and  Express, 


REGULATIONS  FOR  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES.    345 


ACT  OF  MARCH  4,  1909,  EFFECTIVE  JANUARY  1,  1910. 

By  an  act  entitled  "  An  act  to  codify,  revise,  and  amend  the  penal 
laws  of  the  United  States,"  approved  March  4,  1909,  to  take  effect 
and  be  in  force  on  and  after  the  1st  day  of  January,  1910,  the  act 
entitled  "  An  act  to  promote  the  safe  transportation  in  interstate  com- 
merce of  explosives  and  other  dangerous  articles,  and  to  provide  penal- 
ties for  its  violation,"  approved  May  30,  1908,  is  repealed,  and  the 
following  sections  of  said  act  to  codify,  revise,  and  amend  the  penal 
laws  of  the  United  States  are  substituted  therefor: 

SEC.  232.  It  shall  be  unlawful  to  transport,  carry,  or  convey,  any 
dynamite,  gunpowder,  or  other  explosive,  between  a  place  in  a  foreign 
country  and  a  place  within  or  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United 
States,  or  between  a  place  in  any  State,  Territory,  or  District  of  the 
United  States,  or  place  noncontiguous  to  but  subject  to  the  jurisdiction 
thereof,  and  a  place  in  any  other  State,  Territory,  or  District  of  the 
United  States,  or  place  noncontiguous  to  but  subject  to  the  jurisdiction 
thereof,  on  any  vessel  or  vehicle  of  any  description  operated  by  a  common 
carrier,  which  vessel  or  vehicle  is  carrying  passengers  for  hire:  Pro- 
vided, That  it  shall  be  lawful  to  transport  on  any  such  vessel  or  vehicle 
small  arms  ammunition  in  any  quantity,  and  such  fuses,  torpedoes, 
rockets,  or  other  signal  devices,  as  may  be  essential  to  promote  safety 
in  operation,  and  properly  packed  and  marked  samples  of  explosives 
for  laboratory  examination,  not  exceeding  a  net  weight  of  one-ha¥ 
pound  each,  and  not  exceeding  twenty  samples  at  one  time  in  a  single 
vessel  or  vehicle;  but  such  samples  shall  not  be  carried  in  that  part  of  a 
vessel  or  vehicle  which  is  intended  for  the  transportation  of  passengess 
for  hire:  Provided  further,  That  nothing  in  this  section  shall  be  con- 
strued to  prevent  the  transportation  of  military  or  naval  forces  with 
their  accompanying  munitions  of  war  on  passenger  equipment  vessels 
or  vehicles. 

SEC.  233.  The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  shall  formulate 
regulations  for  the  safe  transportation  of  explosives,  which  shall  be 
binding  upon  all  common  carriers  engaged  in  interstate  or  foreign  com- 
merce which  transport  explosives  by  land.  Said  commission,  of  its  own 
motion,  or  upon  application  made  by  any  interested  party,  may  make 
changes  or  modifications  in  such  regulations,  made  desirable  by  new 
information  or  altered  conditions.  Such  regulations  shall  be  in  accord 
with  the  best  known  practicable  means  for  securing  safety  in  transit, 
covering  the  packing,  marking,  loading,  handling  while  in  transit,  and 
the  precautions  necessary  to  determine  whether  the  material  when 


346  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

offered  is  in  proper  condition  to  transport.  Such  regulations,  as  well 
as  all  changes  or  modifications  thereof,  shall  take  effect  ninety  days  after 
their  formulation  and  publication  by  said  commission  and  shall  be  in 
effect  until  reversed,  set  aside,  or  modified. 

SEC.  234.  It  shall  be  unlawful  to  transport,  carry,  or  convey  liquid 
nitroglycerin,  fulminate  in  bulk  in  dry  condition,  or  other  like  explo- 
sive, between  a  place  in  a  foreign  country  and  a  place  within  or  sub- 
ject to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  or  between  place  in  one 
State,  Territory,  or  District  of  the  United  States,  or  a  place  noncon- 
tiguous to  but  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  and  a  place  in  any 
other  State,  Territory,  or  District  of  the  United  States,  or  place  non- 
contiguous to  but  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  on  any  vessel  or 
vehicle  of  any  description  operated  by  a  common  carrier  in  the  trans- 
portation of  passengers  or  articles  of  commerce  by  land  or  water. 

SEC.  235.  Every  package  containing  explosives  or  other  dangerous 
articles  when  presented  to  a  common  carrier  for  shipment  shall  have 
plainly  marked  on  the  outside  thereof  the  contents  thereof;  and  it 
shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  to  deliver,  or  cause  to  be  delivered, 
to  any  common  carrier  engaged  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  by 
land  or  water,  for  interstate  or  foreign  transportation,  or  to  carry  upon 
any  vessel  or  vehicle  engaged  in  interstate  or  foreign  transportation, 
any  explosive,  or  other  dangerous  article,  under  any  false  or  deceptive 
marking,  description,  invoice,  shipping  order,  or  other  declaration,  or 
without  informing  the  agent  of  such  carrier  of  the  true  character  thereof, 
at  or  before  the  time  such  delivery  or  carriage  is  made.  Whoever 
shall  knowingly  violate,  or  cause  to  be  violated,  any  provision  of  this 
section,  or  of  the  three  sections  last  preceding,  or  any  regulation  made 
by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  in  pursuance  thereof,  shall  be 
fined  not  more  than  two  thousand  dollars,  or  imprisoned  not  more  than 
eighteen  months,  or  both. 

SEC.  236.  When  the  death  or  bodily  injury  of  any  person  is  caused 
by  the  explosion  of  any  article  named  in  the  four  sections  last  preced- 
ing, while  the  same  is  being  placed  upon  any  vessel  or  vehicle  to  be 
transported  in  violation  thereof,  or  while  the  same  is  being  so  transported, 
or  while  the  same  is  being  removed  from  such  vessel  or  vehicle,  the 
person  knowingly  placing,  or  aiding  or  permitting  the  placing,  of  such 
articles  upon  any  such  vessel  or  vehicle,  to  be  so  transported,  shall  be 
imprisoned  not  more  than  ten  years, 


APPENDIX  III. 

THE  ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR. 


THE  ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR.1 


The  human  race  is  living  at  the  bottom  of  an  ocean  of  atmosphere 
some  6  or  7  miles  deep.  Although  it  is  not  always  realized  by  the  un- 
scientific mind,  this  aerial  sea  has  weight  and  exerts  a  pressure  upon  all 
bodies  of  approximately  15  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Roughly  speak- 
ing, and  disregarding  a  small  amount  of  rare  gases  and  impurities,  the 
air  consists  of  about  one-fifth  oxygen  and  four-fifths  of  the  inert  gas 
nitrogen. 

Every  intelligent  person  knows  that  oxygen  is  the  breath  of  life, 
and  that  nitrogen  serves  the  purpose  of  just  sufficiently  diluting  the 
oxygen  so  that  the  combustion  of  waste  carbon  conveyed  by  the  blood 
to  the  body  tissues  goes  on  at  the  steady  rate  which  conforms  to  the  life 
processes  of  all  animals.  With  this  general  knowledge  in  regard  to  the 
element  nitrogen,  the  ordinary,  well-informed,  non-technical  man  rests 
content. 

Educated  people  are,  of  course,  aware  that  fixed  nitrogen  in  com- 
bination with  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  some  few  other  minor  elements 
is  built  up  by  vegetable  life  and,  in  turn,  assimilated  into  the  bodies 
of  animals,  thus  supplying  our  food  of  almost  every  variety.  It  is 
also  fairly  well  understood  that  in  the  processes  of  digestion  the  complex 
nitrogenous  bodies  built  up  by  plant  life  are  broken  down  to  simpler  forms, 
in  part  supplying  animal  life  energy  and  in  part  being  voided  by  the 
animal,  the  manurial  nitrogen  products  going  back  to  the  soil,  thus  com- 
pleting what  is  known  as  the  nitrogen  cycle,  caught  in  the  wheel  of  which 
all  material  life,  including  the  much-vaunted  culture  and  progress  of 
modern  civilization,  hangs  suspended. 

One  thing  that  is  not  very  generally  apprehended  by  educated 
people,  however,  is  that  without  fixed  nitrogen  in  great  abundance 
mankind  could  not  wage  war  upon  one  another  under  modern  con- 
ditions. Ever  since  gunpowder  replaced  the  bow  and  arrow  fixed  nitro- 
gen has  been  used  by  man  to  hurl  destructive  missiles  at  his  adversaries. 
In  fact,  it  should  be  stated  that  no  explosive  substance  has  ever  been 
used  in  peace  or  war  which  did  not  depend  for  its  activity  on  the  extraor- 
dinary properties  of  the  element  nitrogen,  which,  as  the  major  con- 
stituent of  the  air  we  breathe,  could  almost  be  said  to  content  itself 
with  the  inert  and  pacific  role  of  toning  down  the  activities  of  its  rest- 
less neighbor,  oxygen. 

1  Communicated  by  the  author,  Reprinted  from  the  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Insti- 
tute, February,  1916. 

349 


350  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES 

I. 

THE  ROLE  OF  NITROGEN. 

It  becomes  evident,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  there  must  be 
some  vital  and  important  difference  in  character  or  quality  between 
what  may  be  termed  fixed  and  unfixed  nitrogen.  In  other  words,  it 
should  be  understood  that  all  life  and  phenomenal  existence,  on  this 
planet  at  least,  depend  upon  the  simple  fact  that  the  element  nitrogen 
is  able  to  assume  two  roles,  in  one  of  which  it  is  unfixed,  inert,  sluggish, 
and  slow  to  enter  into  combination  with  other  elements,  and  in  the  other 
of  which  it  is  active,  reactive,  restless,  ever  ready  to  break  down  into 
new  combinations,  absorbing  and  giving  out  enormous  energy  as  the 
restless  changes  take  place.  Whether  the  changes  take  place  in  a  meas- 
ured and  orderly  fashion,  as  in  plant-cell  growth  and  animal  digestion, 
or  with  the  most  sudden  and  terrible  violence,  as  in  the  case  of  high 
explosives,,  the  energies  either  absorbed  or  released  are  equally  potent 
and  measurable.  The  celebrated  chemist  Berzelius  once  said  of  the  ele- 
ment nitrogen  as  it  occurs  in  the  air,  "  It  is  difficult  to  recognize  by  any 
conspicuous  property,  but  can  only  be  recognized  by  means  of  properties 
which  it  does  not  possess." 

Before  pursuing  our  subject  further  it  will  be  necessary  to  make 
quite  clear  what  is  meant  by  inert,  unfixed  nitrogen  and  active  or  fixed 
nitrogen.  This  explanation  must  be  made  in  such  a  way  that  all  appar- 
ent contradictions  will  immediately  disappear.  Gaseous  nitrogen  as  it 
exists  in  the  atmosphere  has  been  proved  by  scientific  methods  to  consist 
of  a  molecule  made  up  of  two  atoms  bound  together  by  the  equivalent 
of  three  bonds  of  affinity.  What  is  meant  is  made  clearer  if  we  write 
a  sort  of  alphabetical  expression  of  the  inert  nitrogen  molecule,  as  follows: 

NEEBN 

It  should  not  be  supposed  that  the  three  bonds  are  actually  arms  or 
linkages  holding  the  atoms  together;  they  simply  represent  actually 
existent  atomic  forces,  so  that  we  may  say  that  the  element  nitrogen 
is  trivalent.  In  the  same  way  we  know  that  the  element  hydrogen  is 
univalent,  and  we  may  express  this  by  writing  H — H,  for  the  mole- 
cule of  hydrogen  is  also  known  to  be  diatomic. 

Now,  suppose  that  by  some  means  it  is  desired  to  combine  or  fix 
nitrogen  to  hydrogen;  it  is  at  once  apparent  that  we  should  have  to 
expend  energy  to  tear  apart  the  molecular  bonds  before  we  can  fix 
the  two  elements  together.  In  other  words,  the  N^N  would  have 


THE  ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR.  351 

to  pass  through  the  condition  N=  and  !=N.  Similarly,  the  H — H 
would  have  to  split  up  into  H —  and  — H.  Subsequently  the  two  ele- 
ments might  combine  to  form  ammonia. 

— H 
N— H. 

— H 

For  the  purpose  of  this  paper  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  deeper  into 
the  combining  valences  of  the  different  elements  which  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  discuss.  Only  the  simplest  combination  of  nitrogen  and  hydro- 
gen, viz.,  ammonia,  has  been  mentioned  in  order  to  show  the  differ- 
ence between  fixed  nitrogen  and  the  inert  or  unfixed  state  of  this  gas 
as  it  exists  in  the  air,  with  all  its  chemical  affinities  self-satisfied;  in 
short,  in  the  condition  N=N.  If,  however,  this  union  is  torn  apart, 
N^  is  in  an  actively  unsatisfied  state  and  is  prepared  to  fix  itself  into 
myriads  of  combinations  with  other  elements.  In  other  words,  the  mole- 
cule of  nitrogen  is  quiet  and  well  behaved,  whereas  the  free  atom  of 
nitrogen  is  dynamically  and  even,  in  some  combinations,  very  terribly 
reactive.  It  is  this  underlying  chemical  fact  that  has  enabled  men  to 
slaughter  and  destroy  each  other  on  the  gigantic  scale  now  being  demon- 
strated. 

Those  who  have  followed  this  explanation  will  readily  see  that  it 
is  not  possible  to  maintain  nitrogen  in  the  condition  of  free  unsatisfied 
atoms  (N=),  for  the  simple  reason  that  these  atoms  would  return  to 
the  stable,  quiescent  molecule  (N=N),  possibly  with  explosive  energy. 
In  order  to  take  advantage  of  the  reactive  condition,  it  is  necessary 
to  lightly  fix  the  nitrogen  atom  to  some  other  atoms  or  groups  of  atoms 
in  such  a  manner  or  in  such  a  combination  that  the  nitrogen  at  a  blow 
can  be  suddenly  released.  Let  us  take  the  simplest  example  of  what  is 
meant.  By  an  experiment  so  simple  that  the  merest  tyro  in  chemistry 
can  perform  it,  ammonia  can  be  made  to  react  with  the  univalent  element 
iodine  to  form  the  compound  known  as  nitrogen  iodide,  in  which  iodine 

— H  —I 

is  made  to  replace  the  hydrogen,  so  that  N — H  becomes  N — I.     Now, 

-H  —I 

this  nitrogen  iodide  is  a  brown  powder  which,  when  carefully  dried,  will 
remain  innocently  enough,  resting  quietly  unchanged.  If,  however, 
we  even  so  much  as  tickle  this  brown  substance  with  a  feather,  or  even 
if  a  door  in  the  building  in  which  it  lies  is  rudely  slammed,  a  terrible 
detonating  explosion  will  occur,  and  the  air  will  be  filled  with  the  stifling, 
violet-colored  fumes  of  iodine.  A  quantity  of  this  powder  which  could 
be  heaped  on  the  surface  of  a  small  silver  coin  would  be  sufficient  to 
wreck  everything  in  its  neighborhood. 


352  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Whence  this  extraordinary  energy?  The  thermodynamics  of  this 
and  similar  reactions  are  too  complicated  and  mathematical  to  discuss 
here,  but  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  atomic  forces  at  work  in  the  sudden 
liberation  of  free  nitrogen  and  iodine  atoms,  and  their  instantaneous 
rearrangement  into  inert  molecules,  involve  enormous  energy  effects. 
Of  course,  nitrogen  iodide  is  too  treacherous  a  substance  to  be  used 
as  a  high  explosive,  for  in  the  dry  condition  the  merest  jar  would  cause 
it  to  detonate.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  it  has  been  the  task  of  the 
chemist  to  find  ways  of  locking  nitrogen  to  other  elements  or  groups 
of  elements,  with  the  result  that  it  will  be  fixed  tightly  enough  so  that 
premature  explosion  will  be  avoided,  but  not  so  tightly  but  that  it  can 
be  exploded  by  small  quantities  of  more  reactive  nitrogen  compounds 
made  up  in  the  form  of  percussion  caps  or  detonators.  All  modern 
high  explosives  are  just  such  chemical  combinations  of  nitrogen  as  this, 
and  we  have,  among  others,  nitroglycerin  (dynamite),  nitrocellulose 
(guncotton),  trinitro-phenol  (picric  acid),  nitrogelatine,  trinitro-benzene, 
trinitro-toluene,  etc.  Masked  under  such  trade  names  as  lyddite, 
melinite,  turpenite,  cordite,  etc.,  these  nitrogen  compounds  are  products  of 
modern  chemistry  known  and  used  by  the  armies  and  navies  of  the  world. 

In  a  later  paragraph  we  shall  have  occasion  to  return  to  the  consti- 
tutions of  these  more  complicated  nitro-substitution  products.  For 
the  present,  it  will  be  necessary  to  inquire  into  the  source  and  supply 
of  the  combined  or  fixed  nitrogen  on  which  modern  warfare  depends. 

On  the  western  coast  of  South  America,  in  Chile  and  Peru,  there 
occur  vast  natural  deposits  of  nitrate  of  sodium,  commonly  known  as 
Chile  saltpeter.  These  deposits,  with  certain  exceptions  which  will 
be  noted  later,  constitute  the  world's  supply  of  fixed  or  combined  nitro- 
gen, and  in  times  of  peace  set  the  price  for  all  combined  nitrogen  from 
whatsoever  source  derived.  In  sodium  nitrate  the  nitrogen  is  linked 
to  oxygen.  Treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  cheap  and  abundant, 
sodium  nitrate  yields  nitric'  acid.  Various  organic  substances  treated 
under  certain  conditions  with  nitric  acid  yield  nitro-substitution  bodies 
which  are  used  as  dyes,  while  other  of  these  bodies  are  the  high  explo- 
sives referred  to  above.  But  sodium  nitrate,  for  reasons  that  will  now 
be  apparent  to  the  reader,  is  necessary  as  a  fertilizer  to  keep  up  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  and  thus  make  it  possible  for  mankind  to  work  out  his 
destiny  through  the  nitrogen  cycle  to  which  he  is  linked.  It  is  indeed 
a  curious  thought  that  these  natural  deposits  in  a  more  or  less  remote 
corner  of  the  world  should  exercise  so  great  an  influence  on  man  and  in 
so  diverse  a  manner — on  his  life  in  the  growth  of  the  food  he  eats,  and 
on  his  death  in  the  production  of  destructive  explosive  agents,  capable 
of  killing  thousands  at  a  single  blow. 


THE  ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR.       353 

In  spite  of  the  vastness  of  the  Chilean  nitrate  beds,  thoughtful 
scientific  men  have  for  many  years  given  warning  of  the  danger  of  their 
exhaustion.  In  1898,  Sir  William  Crookes,  in  his  presidential  address 
before  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  dwelt 
in  the  most  earnest  manner  upon  the  importance  of  this  problem,  and 
urged  upon  the  attention  of  chemists  and  physicists  the  necessity  for 
developing  methods  for  fixing  the  inexhaustible  supply  of  nitrogen  in  the 
air. 

The  present  annual  output  of  the  Chilean  fields  amounts  to  about 
2,500,000  tons.  A  recent  scientific  article  x  on  this  subject  states: 

While  there  are  a  few  scattered  natural  deposits  other  than  those  in  Chile, 
there  is  none  which  has  at  the  present  time  a  chance  of  competing,  most  of  them 
being  of  limited  extent  and  situated  in  inaccessible  regions.  In  Chile  the  deposits 
are  easily  worked,  and  even  after  years  of  careless  mining,  with  no  effort  to  effect 
economies,  the  present  cost  of  producing  nitrate  is  not  excessive,  varying  from 
$10  to  $20  per  ton  and  selling  in  Liverpool  for  about  $45  per  ton.  This  leaves 
a  profit  of  from  $5  to  $10  a  ton  on  the  operation,  after  paying  the  Government 
of  Chile  an  export  tax  of  about  $12.25  per  ton.  In  the  past  thirty  years  this 
export  tax  has  netted  the  Chilean  Government  about  $500,000,000.  Of  the 
total  production  of  Chile,  the  United  States  imports  about  600,000  to  700,000 
tons  per  annum,  the  balance  being  practically  all  shipped  to  European  countries. 
Chile  saltpeter  has  sold  for  as  high  as  $60  a  ton,  but  since  1909,  when  the  agree- 
ment among  the  producers  expired,  the  price  has  approximated  $45  per  ton 
f.  o.  b.  Liverpool,  making  a  price  of  from  $35  to  $40  per  ton  f.  o.  b.  Chile. 

According  to  the  same  authority  quoted  above,  50  per  cent  of  all  the 
Chile  saltpeter  imported  into  the  United  States  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  explosives,  while  an  additional  25  per  cent  is  utilized  in  the 
arts  requiring  nitric  acid.  The  balance,  or  25  per  cent,  presumably 
finds  its  way  to  the  soil  as  an  intensive  nitrogen  fertilizer. 

Let  us  now  see  what  statistics  will  show  in  regard  to  the  proportion 
of  the  two  and  one-half  million  tons  of  nitrate  produced  in  Chile  which 
is  yearly  imported  into  this  country.  The  foreign  commerce  reports 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Commerce  have  made  the  follow- 
ing figures  available : 

Nitrate  of  soda  imported  into  the  United  States  for  the  12 
months  ending  June — 

1913— 

Tons 589,136 

Value $20,718,968 

1914— 

Tons 564,049 

Value $17,950,786 

1915— 

Tons 577,122 

Value $16,355,701 

1  "  Fixation  of  Atmospheric  Nitrogen,"  Leland  L.  Summers,  Trans.  Amer.  Electrochem. 
Soc.,  xxvii,  340-341,  1915. 


354  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

These  figures  are  interesting  and  can  be  interpreted  in  their  rela- 
tion to  world  conditions  during  the  years  included.  They  at  once 
suggest  a  number  of  questions  which  will  be  interesting  to  note  down. 

1.  Since  the  United  States  normally  has  taken  about  one-fifth  of 
the  world  supply  of  nitrate,  and  since  75  per  cent  of  this  goes  for  the 
manufacture  of  explosives  and  nitric  acid,  what  would  happen  to  the 
United  States  if  it  were  attacked  by  a  strong  naval  power  which  would 
be  able  to  blockade  the  western  coast  of  South  America  and  the  entrance 
to  the  Panama  Canal? 

2.  What  reserve  supply  of  fixed  nitrogen  have  we  in  the  United 
States  in  case  we  were  called  upon  to  wage  a  defensive  war,  and  does 
anyone  in  authority  in  the  United  States  show  any  indication  of  car- 
ing at  all  about  this  important  matter?  1 

3.  Since  Germany  and  Austria  have  lost  command  of  the  sea,  where 
are  they  getting  the  enormous  supplies  of  fixed  nitrogen  necessary  for 
their  war  against  the  world? 

4.  Assuming  that  England,  France,  Russia,  Italy,  and  Japan  are 
between  them  using  2,000,000  tons  of  Chilean  nitrate  for  the  manu- 
facture of  explosives,  is  the  quantity  adequate  to  the  task  they  have 
undertaken? 

The  answers  to  these  questions,  though  not  treated  seriatim,  will 
be  discussed  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

In  the  great  iron  and  steel  industries  of  the  world  vast  quantities 
of  coal  have  to  be  partially  burned  to  coke.  In  this  process  large  quan- 
tities of  valuable  by-products  are  driven  off  and  can  be  collected  and 
used  for  many  purposes,  both  in  the  peaceful  arts  and  in  war.  To  our 
everlasting  shame  be  it  said  that  we  have  for  the  most  part,  by  the  use 
of  the  open  beehive-shaped  coke  ovens,  allowed  these  valuable  by- 
products to  escape  into  the  air  and  be  lost.  One  at  least  of  the  good 
things  that  the  present  war  has  accomplished  is  in  showing  us  the  folly 
of  such  insane  waste  of  valuable  material.  The  substitution  of  the  open 
type  of  coke  oven  by  the  inclosed  by-product  recovery  oven  is  now 
at  last  going  on  apace.  Our  coking  coals  contain  about  1  per  cent  of 
fixed  nitrogen,  and  this  can  all  be  saved  and  converted  into  ammonia 
or  the  sulphate  of  ammonia.  It  will  be  remembered  that  once  we  have 
our  nitrogen  fixed  we  can  use  it  as  fertilizer  or  convert  it  by  chemical 
processes  into  useful  products,  including  high  explosives. 

1  Since  this  article  went  to  press,  announcements  have  appeared  in  the  daily  press, 
stating  that  Brig.  Gen.  William  M.  Crozier,  Chief  of  Ordnance  of  the  United  States  Army, 
in  his  annual  report  has  urged  that  the  Nation  take  steps  to  be  independent  of  the  Chilean 
beds  for  the  nitrates  used  in  making  gunpowder.  In  addition  to  this,  it  is  reported  that 
Mr.  James  B.  Dukes  announces  that  his  company  will  turn  out  4  tons  daily  at  once  of 
nitric  acid  made  from  nitrogen  of  the  air.  If  these  press  reports  are  correct,  answers  to 
some  of  the  questions  considered  in  this  paper  are  already  in  hand. 


THE  ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR.  355 

Among  the  coke  recovery  products  we  get  coal  tar,  which  in  turn 
yields  such  valuable  intermediates  as  benzene,  toluene,  and  aniline, 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  an  infinite  number  of  dyes,  medicines,  and 
explosives.  The  annual  world's  production  of  sulphate  of  ammonia 
from  gas  works  and  by-product  coke  ovens  now  amounts  to  about 
1,250,000  tons,  and  the  Liverpool  price  approximates  that  of  sodium 
nitrate,  varying  from  $45  to  $60  per  ton. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  figures  that  while  by-product  recovery 
from  coke-making  offers  an  opportunity  to  eke  out  the  needed  supply 
of  fixed  nitrogen,  taken  by  itself  this  source  is  insufficient  to  fill  the 
demand  in  time  of  peace,  and  in  tune  of  war  and  embargo  it  would  be 
quite  inadequate,  especially  in  the  United  States,  where  we  are  compara- 
tively young  in  the  application  not  only  of  by-product  recovery  but  also 
in  the  chemical  processes  required  to  oxidize  ammonia  to  the  condition 
of  nitric  acid  necessary  for  the  manufacture  of  explosives. 

Within  the  last  fifteen  years,  or  since  Sir  William  Crookes  sounded 
his  note  of  warning  to  the  world,  chemists  have  paid  especial  attention 
to  the  problem  of  the  fixation  of  the  inexhaustible  supply  of  nitrogen 
in  the  air.  There  are  three  lines  of  attacking  this  problem  along  which 
substantial  success  has  been  attained:  First,  the  nitrogen  can  be  made 
to  combine  directly  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  to  form  nitric  acid; 
second,  the  nitrogen  can  be  induced  to  combine  with  carbon  to  form 
cyanamide  (C2N2),  which  can  be  used  directly  as  a  fertilizer  or  by  sub- 
sequent treatment  changed  into  ammonia  and  hence  to  nitric  acid ;  and 
third,  nitrogen  can  be  directly  linked  tc  waste  or  by-product  hydrogen 
from  other  chemical  industries  to  form  ammonia.  There  are  also  other 
indirect  processes  which  have  been  proposed  for  fixing  atmospheric 
nitrogen,  but  these  need  not  be  discussed  here. 

It  is  apparent  from  what  has  been  said  in  an  earlier  part  of  this 
article  that  enormous  energy  is  called  for  in  breaking  up  the  linkage 
N=N  and  fixing  the  nitrogen  atoms  to  other  atoms,  such  as  oxygen, 
carbon,  and  hydrogen.  It  will  not  be  surprising,  therefore,  to  learn 
that  the  success  of  such  industries  must  hang,  for  the  most  part,  on 
the  successful  harnessing  of  great  water  powers  to  this  end.  We  have 
our  Niagara  and  many  other  great  potential  water  powers  in  North 
America;  let  us  inquire,  therefore,  what  we  have  done  in  this  country 
toward  the  solution  of  this  problem  with  which  the  future  of  the  human 
race  is  so  inevitably  bound  up. 

Perhaps  it  might  be  permitted  to  begin  this  portion  of  the  discus- 
sion with  the  statement  that  we  in  the  United  States  have  accom- 
plished practically  nothing  at  all  along  this  line.  It  is  a  curious  fact, 
often  made  a  subject  of  comment,  that  in  America  have  been  made 


356  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

nearly  all  the  inventions  on  which  modern  warfare  depends,  all  of  which, 
for  lack  of  public  interest  and  financial  backing,  have  passed  for  their 
development  to  foreign  countries.  This  is  true  of  the  aeroplane,  the 
dirigible,  the  submarine,  and  it  is  equally  true  of  the  nitrogen-fixation 
processes.  In  1902  two  American  pioneers,  Love  joy  and  Bradley, 
established  at  Niagara  Falls 'their  first  industrial  apparatus  for  fixing 
the  nitrogen  to  the  oxygen  of  the  air  by  means  of  the  electric  arc  and 
thereby  directly  producing  nitric  acid.  These  pioneers  were  on  the 
right  track,  but  nobody  cared,  least  of  all  our  Government,  and  so  the 
infant  industry  died  of  inanition.  I  shall  now  dare  to  say  that  it  is  the 
development  of  this  pioneer  work  in  the  hands  of  foreign  scientists  and 
engineers  that  made  it  possible  for  Germany  to  challenge  a  world  at  arms. 
Dr.  L.  H.  Baekeland,  in  the  Chandler  lecture  for  1914,  has  so  excellently 
summed  up  the  status  of  nitrogen  fixation  that  no  one  could  improve 
upon  his  brief  capitulation,  nor  can  Dr.  Baekeland's  summary  be  too 
often  printed  for  the  instruction  of  our  countrymen.  This  eminent 
authority  says: 

The  development  of  some  problems  of  industrial  chemistry  has  enlisted  the 
brilliant  collaboration  of  men  of  so  many  different  nationalities  that  the  final 
success  could  not,  with  any  measure  of  justice,  be  ascribed  exclusively  to  one 
single  race  or  nation;  this  is  best  illustrated  by  the  invention  of  the  different 
methods  for  the  fixation  of  nitrogen  from  the  air. 

This  extraordinary  achievement,  although  scarcely  a  few  years  old,  seems 
already  an  ordinary  link  in  the  chain  of  common,  current  events  of  our  busy 
life;  and  yet  the  facts  connected  with  this  recent  conquest  reveal  a  modern  tale 
of  great  deeds  of  the  race — an  epos  of  applied  science. 

Its  story  began  the  day  when  chemistry  taught  us  how  indispensable  are  the 
nitrogenous  substances  for  the  growth  of  all  living  beings. 

Generally  speaking,  the  most  expensive  foodstuffs  are  precisely  those  which 
contain  most  nitrogen;  for  the  simple  reason  that  there  is,  and  always  has  been, 
at  some  time  "or  another,  a  shortage  of  nitrogenous  foods  in  the  world.  Agri- 
culture furnishes  us  those  proteid-  or  nitrogen-containing  bodies,  whether  we 
eat  them  directly  as  vegetable  products,  or  indirectly  as  animals  which  have 
assimilated  the  proteids  from  plants.  It  so  happens,  however,  that  by  our  ill- 
balanced  methods  of  agriculture  we  take  nitrogen  from  the  soil  much  faster  than 
it  is  supplied  to  the  soil  through  natural  agencies.  We  have  tried  to  remedy 
this  discrepancy  by  enriching  the  soil  with  manure  or  other  fertilizers,  but  this 
has  been  found  totally  insufficient,  especially  with  our  methods  of  intensive 
culture — our  fields  want  more  nitrogen.  So  agriculture  has  been  looking  anxiously 
around  to  find  new  sources  of  nitrogen  fertilizer.  For  a  short  time  an  excellent 
supply  was  found  in  the  guano  deposit  of  Peru;  but  this  material  was  used  up 
BO  eagerly  that  the  supply  lasted  only  a  very  few  years.  In  the  meantime  the 
ammonium  salts  recovered  from  the  by-products  of  the  gas  works  have  come 
into  steady  use  as  nitrogen  fertilizer.  But  here  again  the  supply  is  entirely 
insufficient,  and  during  the  later  period  our  main  reliance  has  been  placed  on  the 
natural  beds  of  sodium  nitrate,  which  are  found  in  the  desert  regions  of  Chile. 
This  has  been  of  late  our  principal  source  of  nitrogen  for  agriculture  as  well  as  for 
the  many  industries  which  require  saltpeter  or  nitric  acid. 

In  1898  Sir  William  Crookes,  in  his  memorable  presidential  address  before 
the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  called  our  attention  to 
the  threatening  fact  that  at  the  increasing  rate  of  consumption  the  nitrate  beds 
of  Chile  would  be  exhausted  before  the  middle  of  this  century.  Here  was  a 
warning — an  alarm — raised  to  the  human  race  by  one  of  the  deepest  scientific 
thinkers  of  our  generation.  It  meant  no  more  nor  less  than  that  before  long 
our  race  would  be  confronted  with  nitrogen  starvation.  In  a  given  country,  all 


THE  ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE   WAR.  357 

other  conditions  being  equal,  the  abundance  or  the  lack  of  nitrogen  available 
for  nutrition  is  a  paramount  factor  in  the  degree  of  general  welfare  or  of  physical 
decadence.  .The  less  nitrogen  there  is  available  as  foodstuffs  the  nearer  the  popu- 
lation is  to  starvation.  The  great  famines  in  such  nitrogen-deficient  countries 
as  India  and  China  and  Russia  are  sad  examples  of  nitrogen  starvation. 

And  yet  nitrogen  as  such  is  so  abundant  in  nature  that  it  constitutes  four- 
fifths  of  the  air  we  breathe.  Every  square  mile  of  our  atmosphere  contains 
nitrogen  enough  to  satisfy  our  total  present  consumption  for  over  half  a  century. 
However,  this  nitrogen  is  unavailable  so  long  as  we  do  not  find  means  to  make 
it  enter  into  some  suitable  chemical  combination.  Moreover,  nitrogen  was 
generally  considered  inactive  and  inert  because  it  does  not  enter  readily  into 
chemical  combination. 

William  Crookes's  disquieting  message  of  rapidly  approaching  nitrogen  star- 
vation did  not  cause  much  worry  to  politicians — they  seldom  look  so  far  ahead 
into  the  future.  But  to  the  men  of  science  it  rang  like  a  reproach  to  the  human 
race.  Here,  then,  we  were  in  possession  of  an  inexhaustible  store  of  nitrogen 
in  the  air,  and  yet,  unless  we  found  some  practical  means  for  tying  some  of  it 
into  a  suitable  chemical  combination,  we  would  soon  be  in  a  position  similar  to 
that  of  a  shipwrecked  sailor,  drifting  around  on  an  immense  ocean  of  brine,  and 
yet  slowly  dying  for  lack  of  drinking  water. 

As  a  guiding  beacon  there  was,  however,  that  simple  experiment,  carried 
out  in  a  little  glass  tube  as  far  back  as  1785  by  both  Cavendish  and  Priestley, 
which  showed  that  if  electric  sparks  were  passed  through  air  the  oxygen  thereof 
was  able  to  burn  some  of  the  nitrogen  and  to  engender  nitrous  vapors. 

This  seemingly  unimportant  laboratory  curiosity,  so  long  dormant  in  the 
textbooks,  was  made  a  starting  point  by  Charles  S.  Bradley  and  D.  R.  Love- 
joy,  in  Niagara  Falls,  for  creating  the  first  industrial  apparatus  for  converting 
the  nitrogen  of  the  air  into  nitric  acid  by  means  of  the  electric  arc. 

As  early  as  1902  they  published  their  results,  as  well  as  the  details  of  their 
apparatus.  Although  they  operated  only  one  full-sized  unit,  they  demonstrated 
conclusively  that  nitric  acid  could  thus  be  produced  from  the  air  in  unlimited 
quantities.  We  shall  examine  later  the  reasons  why  this  pioneer  enterprise 
proved  a  commercial  failure;  but  to  these  twTo  American  inventors  belongs, 
undoubtedly,  the  credit  of  having  furnished  the  first  answer  to  the  distress  call 
of  Sir  William  Crookes. 

In  the  meantime  many  other  investigators  were  at  work  at  the  same  prob- 
lem, and  soon  from  Norway's  abundant  waterfalls  came  the  news  that  Birke- 
land  and  Eyde  had  solved  successfully,  and  on  a  commercial  scale,  the  same 
problem  by  a  differently  constructed  apparatus.  The  Germans,  too,  were  work- 
ing on  the  same  subject,  and  we  heard  that  Schoenherr,  also  Pauling,  had  evolved 
still  other  methods,  all,  however,  based  on  the  Cavendish-Priestley  principle  of 
oxidation  of  nitrogen.  In  Norway  alone  the  artificial  saltpeter  factories  use  now, 
day  and  night,  over  200,000  electric  horse-power,  which  will  soon  be  doubled; 
while  a  further  addition  is  contemplated  which  will  bring  the  volume  of  electric 
current  consumed  to  about  500,000  horse-power.  The  capital  invested  at  present 
in  these  works  amounts  to  $27,000,000. 

Frank  and  Caro,  in  Germany,  succeeded  in  creating  another  profitable  indus- 
trial process  whereby  nitrogen  could  be  fixed  by  carbide  of  calcium,  which  con- 
verts it  into  calcium  cyanamide,  an  excellent  fertilizer  by  itself.  By  the  action 
of  steam  on  a  cyanamide,  ammonia  is  produced,  or  it  can  be  made  the  starting 
point  of  the  manufacture  of  cyanides,  so  profusely  used  for  the  treatment  of  gold 
and  silver  ores. 

Although  the  synthetic  nitrates  have  found  a  field  of  their  own,  their  utiliza- 
tion for  fertilizers  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  cyanamide;  and  the  latter  industry 
represents  to-day  an  investment  of  about  $30,000,000,  with  three  factories  in 
Germany,  two  in  Norway,  two  in  Sweden,  one  in  France,  one  in  Switzerland, 
two  in  Italy,  one  in  Austria,  one  in  Japan,  one  in  Canada,  but  not  any  in  the 
United  States.  The  total  output  of  cyanamide  is  valued  at  $15,000,000  yearly  and 
employs  200,000  horse-power,  and  preparations  are  made  at  almost  every  exist- 
ing plant  for  further  extensions.  An  English  company  is  contemplating  the 
application  of  1,000,000  horse-power  to  the  production  of  cyanamide  and  its  de- 
rivatives, 600,000  of  which  have  been  secured  in  Norway  and  400,000  in  Iceland. 

But  still  other  processes  are  being  developed,  based  on  the  fact  that  certajn 
metals  or  metalloids  can  absorb  nitrogen,  and  can  thus  be  converted  into  nitrides; 
the  latter  can  either  be  used  directly  as  fertilizers  or  they  can  be  made  to  produce 
ammonia  under  suitable  treatment. 


358  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

The  most  important  of  these  nitride  processes  seems  to  be  that  of  Serpek, 
who,  in  his  experimental  factory  at  Niedermorschweiler,  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing aluminum  nitride  in  almost  theoretical  quantities  with  the  use  of  an  amount 
of  electrical  energy  eight  times  less  than  that  needed  for  the  Birkeland-Eyde 
process  and  one-half  less  than  for  the  cyanamide  process,  the  results  being  calcu- 
lated for  equal  weights  of  "  fixed  "  nitrogen. 

A  French  company  has  taken  up  the  commercial  application  of  this  process 
which  can  furnish,  besides  ammonia,  pure  alumina  for  the  manufacture  of  alumi- 
num metal. 

An  exceptionally  ingenious  process  for  the'  direct  synthesis  of  ammonia  by 
the  direct  union  of  hydrogen  with  nitrogen  has  been  developed  by  Haber  in  con- 
junction with  the  chemists  and  engineers  of  the  Badische  Aniline  und  Soda 
Fabrik. 

The  process  has  the  advantage  that  it  is  not,  like  the  other  nitrogen-fixation 
processes,  paramountly  dependent  upon  cheap  power;  for  this  reason,  if  for  no 
other,  it  seems  to  be  destined  to  a  more  ready  application.  The  fact  that  the 
group  of  the  three  German  chemical  companies,  which  control  the  process  have 
sold  out  their  former  holdings  in  the  Norwegian  enterprises  to  a  Norwegian- 
French  group  and  are  now  devoting  their  energies  to  the  commercial  installation 
of  the  Haber  process  has  considerable  significance  as  to  expectations  for  the  future. 

The  question  naturally  arises:  Will  there  be  an  overproduction  and  will 
these  different  rival  processes  not  kill  each  other  in  slaughtering  prices  beyond 
remunerative  production? 

As  to  overproduction  we  should  bear  in  mind  that  nitrogen  fertilizers  are 
already  used  at  the  rate  of  about  $200,000,000  worth  a  year,  and  that  any  de- 
crease in  price,  and,  more  particularly,  better  education  in  farming,  will  prob- 
ably lead  to  an  enormously  increased  consumption.  It  is  worth  mentioning  here 
that  in  1825  the  first  shipload  of  Chile  saltpeter  which  was  sent  to  Europe  could 
find  no  buyer  and  was  finally  thrown  into  the  sea  as  useless  material. 

Then,  again,  processes  for  nitric  acid  and  processes  for  ammonia,  instead  of 
interfering,  are  supplementary  to  each  other,  because  the  world  needs  ammonia 
and  ammonium  as  well  as  nitric  acid  or  nitrates. 

It  should  be  pointed  out  also  that  ultimately  the  production  of  ammonium 
nitrate  may  prove  the  most  desirable  method,  so  as  to  minimize  freight,  for  this 
salt  contains  much  more  nitrogen  to  the  ton  than  is  the  case  with  the  more  bulky 
calcium  salt,  under  which  form  synthetic  nitrates  are  now  put  into  the  market. 

Before  leaving  this  subject  let  us  examine  why  Bradley  and  Lovejoy's  efforts 
came  to  a  standstill  where  others  succeeded. 

First  of  all,  the  cost  of  power  at  Niagara  Falls  is  three  to  five  times  higher 
than  in  Norway,  and  although  at  the  time  this  was  not  strictly  prohibitive  for 
the  manufacture  of  nitric  acid  it  was  entirely  beyond  hope  for  the  production 
of  fertilizers.  The  relatively  high  cost  of  power  in  our  country  is  the  reason 
why  the  cyanamide  enterprise  had  to  locate  on  the  Canadian  side  of  Niagara 
Falls,  and  why  up  till  now,  outside  of  an  experimental  plant  in  the  South  (a 
4000-horse-power  installation  in  North  Carolina,  using  the  Pauling  process),  the 
whole  United  States  has  not  a  single  synthetic-nitrogen  fertilizer  works. 

The  yields  of  the  Bradley-Lovejoy  apparatus  were  rather  good.  They  suc- 
ceeded in  converting  as  much  as  2|  per  cent  of  the  air,  which  is  somewhat  better 
than  their  successors  are  able  to  accomplish. 

But  their  units — 12  kilowatts — were  very  much  smaller  than  the  1000  to 
3000  kilowatts  now  used  in  Norway;  they  were  also  more  delicate  to  handle, 
all  of  which  made  installation  arid  operation  considerably  more  expensive. 

However,  this  was  the  natural  phase  through  which  any  pioneer  industrial 
development  has  to  go,  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  in  the  natural  order  of 
events  these  imperfections  would  have  been  eliminated. 

But  the  killing  stroke  came  when  financial  support  was  suddenly  withdrawn. 

In  the  successful  solution  of  similar  industrial  problems  the  originators  in 
Europe  were  not  only  backed  by  scientifically  well-advised  bankers,  but  they 
were  helped  to  the  rapid  solution  of  all  the  side  problems  by  a  group  of  specially 
selected  scientific  collaborators  as  well  as  by  all  the  resourcefulness  of  well- 
established  chemical  enterprises. 

That  such  conditions  are  possible  in  the  United  States  has  been  demonstrated 
by  the  splendid  teamwork  which  led  to  the  development  of  the  modern  tungsten 
lamps  in  the  research  laboratories  of  the  General  Electric  Co.,  and  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  Tesla  polyphase  motor  by  the  group  of  engineers  of  the  Westing- 
house  Co. 


THE  ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR.       359 

True,  there  are  endless  subjects  of  research  and  development  which  can  be 
brought  to  success  by  efforts  of  single  independent  inventors,  but  there  are  some 
problems  of  applied  science  which  are  so  vast,  so  much  surrounded  with  ramify- 
ing difficulties,  that  no  one  man,  nor  two  men,  however  exceptional,  can  fur- 
nish either  the  brains  or  the  money  necessary  for  leading  to  success  within  a 
reasonable  time.  For  such  special  problems  the  rapid  cooperation  of  numerous 
experts  and  the  financial  resources  of  large  establishments  are  indispensable. 

So  much  for  the  role  of  chemistry  in  the  war  in  so  far  as  it  is  affected 
by  the  nitrogen-fixation  problem.  Those  who  have  read  thus  far  will  be 
able  to  formulate  their  own  answers  to  the  questions  set  down  in  an 
earlier  paragraph  and  will  understand  how  Germany,  although  cut  off 
from  the  South  America  nitrate  fields,  has  been  able  to  assemble  and  use 
more  high  explosives  in  a  shorter  time  than  anyone  would  have  believed 
possible  previous  to  the  year  of  grace  (sic)  1914. 

If  we  assume  that  the  nations  at  war  have  provided  themselves 
with  adequate  supplies  of  fixed  nitrogen  in  the  condition  of  nitric  acid, 
let  us  now  return  to  a  more  detailed  discussion  of  the  materials  and 
methods  which  modern  chemistry  uses  for  the  production  of  high  explo- 
sives, without  an  abundant  supply  of  which  modern  warfare  must  imme- 
diately come  to  an  end.  We  have  seen  in  what  manner  the  nations  are 
in  fact  fighting  with  fixed  nitrogen.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  out  of 
the  atmosphere  comes  the  power  of  making  war,  for  there  are  geological 
reasons  for  believing  that  the'  nitrogen  of  the  Chile  nitrate  beds  was 
originally  fixed  by  natural  process  from  atmospheric  nitrogen.  We 
must  now  consider  something  of  the  chemistry  of  the  element  carbon 
and  the  wonderful  role  which  it  also  plays  in  war. 


II. 

THE  ROLE  OF  CARBON. 

The  element  carbon,  unlike  nitrogen,  does  not  appear  in  nature  in 
the  gaseous  form.  It  is  familiar  to  every  one  in  an  impure  form  as 
coal,  as  charcoal,  and  graphite,  and  in  its  pure  crystallized  form  as 
the  diamond.  Considered  as  an  atom  in  its  chemical  sense  it  is  highly 
reactive  and  every  ready  to  combine  with  other  atoms  and  groups  of 
atoms  to  form  the  endless  variety  of  organic  forms  which  make  up 
the  visible  universe.  The  most  characteristic  attribute  of  the  carbon 
atom  is  its  power  and  tendency  to  link  up  with  other  carbon  atoms, 
thus  permitting  an  infinite  variety  of  molecular  architecture.  It  will 
be  necessary  to  follow  this  statement  a  little  further,  on  account  of  its 
bearing  on  the  role  of  chemistry  in  the  war. 

We  have  seen  that  the  free  atom  of  nitrogen  is  called  trivalent  and 


360  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

is  written  N=.  Similarly,  the  free  atom  of  carbon  is  known  to  be 
quadrivalent  and  might  be  written  CEEE.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, the  quadrivalence  of  the  carbon  atom  is  expressed  in  the  following 
form: 


Really  the  carbon  atom  with  its  four  bonds  is  thought  of  spacially 
as  being  at  the  center  of  a  pyramid  or  tetrahedron.  For  our  present 
purpose,  however,  we  need  not  confuse  ourselves  with  this  concep- 
tion, but  think  or  it  as  written  above.  The  point  to  be  understood  is 
that  the  free  affinities  of  the  carbon  atom  are  easily  saturated  with 
other  atoms  or  groups  of  atoms,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  following  com- 
pounds : 

H  H  Cl  Cl 

I  I  I  I 

H—  C—  H  H—  C—  OH  Cl—  C—  Cl  Cl—  C—  H 

I  I  I  I 

H  H  Cl  Cl 

Marsh  gas  (methane)          Methyl  alcohol         Carbon  tetrachloride  Chloroform 

But  the  most  interesting  characteristic  is  the  ability  of  carbon  to 

ii          ill 

link  up  as  in  —  C  —  C  —  and  —  C  —  C  —  C  —  and  so  on  until  we  reach 

ii          ill 

a  string  or  nucleus  of  six  atoms,  when  in  many  cases  the  string  acts 
as  though  it  were  unwieldy  and,  like  a  snake  with  its  tail  in  its  mouth, 
links  up  into  form  of  a  ring  known  as  the  benzene  ring,  and  written: 

i  i      i 


/S  f~*  _  r^  (~^  /-i 

i,  |          or  further  into  double  or  i         ,  .          | 

even  triPle  rinSs:  __  c        C— 


i  i      i 

It  may  appear  to  the  layman  that  we  are  involving  ourselves  pretty 
deeply  in  advanced  chemistry,  but  we  must  be  patient,  because  we  are 


THE  ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR.  361 

getting  close  to  the  secret  of  modern  warfare  as  it  is  controlled  by  high 
explosives.  We  are  also  getting  close  to  the  secrets  of  the  dye  industry 
and  modern  medicinals,  which  subjects  have  been  much  discussed  in 
this  country  since  the  outbreak  of  the  war. 

Benzene  has  already  been  referred  to  in  an  earlier  paragraph  as  a 
by-product  of  the  coke  and  gas  industry.  It  is  a  limpid  liquid  sub- 
stance which  closely  resembles  gasoline  in  odor  and  properties.  If 
cheap  enough,  it  could  be  used  in  automobile  engines,  but  its  price  before 
the  war  in  this  country  was  about  30  cents  a  gallon,  which  was  pro- 
hibitive of  its  use  for  this  purpose.  It  is  an  important  raw  material 
for  the  manufacture  of  high  explosives,  dyes,  synthetic  medicines, 
phonographic  records,  etc.  Benzene  has  the  chemical  formula  C6H6, 
and  is  to  be  considered  as  a  ring  of  six  carbon  atoms  attached  as  shown 
above,  with  one  hydrogen  atom  fixed  to  each  carbon.  For  the  sake 
of  brevity  and  simplicity,  chemists  no  longer  take  the  trouble  to  write 
in  the  carbon  or  hj^drogen  atoms  into  their  ring  formula?,  these  being 
assumed,  only  the  significant  substituting  atoms  being  placed  and 
written  in.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  benzene,  or,  as  the  Germans  call  it, 
the  benzol  ring,  is  expressed  by  writing: 
% 

H 


TT  _  /-I  /S  _  TT 

instead  of  the  more  ,  .         . 

cumbersome  TT  _  Q       A  _  TT 


H 

Now,  suppose  by  treating  benzene  with  certain  chemicals,  we  replace 
one  of  the  hydrogens  by  the  group  of  atoms  OH,  we  get 

OH 


This  body  is  carbolic  acid,  known  to  chemists  as  phenol.  It  was  this 
substance  that  we  have  read  in  the  newspapers  Thomas  A.  Edison 
needed  for  making  phonograph  records  after  the  German  supplies  ceased, 


362  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

and  which  he  was  able  to  make  as  soon  as  the  recovered  benzene  began 
to  be  available  from  the  American  gas  and  coke  plants.  Now,  if  we 
start  again  with  phenol  and  treat  it  with  nitric  acid  in  a  special  manner, 
we  make  trinitro-phenol,  or  picric  acid,  an  intensely  yellow  substance 
which  is  used  as  a  dye  base  and  is  also  one  of  the  most  deadly  of  the  high 
explosives,  We  write  the  formula  of  picric  acid 

OH 

N02 


"0 


N02 


and  designate  it  as  a  2,  4,  6  substitution  product,  for  the  group  or  radical 
NO2  must  fix  to  just  the  right  points  in  the  carbon  ring,  or  we  should 
not  get  picric  acid,  but  something  else.  Perhaps  we  have  now  succeeded 
in  getting  a  glimpse  into  the  wonderful  molecular  architecture  that  has 
been  patiently  worked  out  by  chemists  for  the  use  of  man  in  the  arts  of 
peace  and  war.  Untold  numbers  of  tons  of  picric-acid  mixtures  under 
the  names  of  melinite  and  turpenite  are  being  shot  off  on  the  European 
battlefields. 

Looking  at  the  graphic  representation  of  the  picric-acid  molecule 
written  above,  it  requires  but  a  slight  effort  of  the  imagination  to  picture 
what  takes  place  when  this  molecule  is  suddenly  shattered  into  its 
elements.  Large  quantities  of  hot  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen 
atoms  are  instantly  set  free,  seeking  to  expand  and  satisfy  their  various 
affinities.  The  chemical  forces  of  disruption  and  rearrangement  are 
titanic  and  when  directed  to  that  end  scatter  death  and  destruction 
round  about. 

Picric  acid,  when  dry,  melts  down  quietly  at  a  little  above  the  water- 
boiling  temperature,  with  little  danger  of  explosion  unless  it  is  detonated 
by  something  else.  It  is  usually  melted  down  with  rosin  or  some  other 
body  which  is  used  to  dilute  it.  It  is  these  other  bodies  which  are  partly 
responsible  for  the  dense  clouds  of  black  smoke  formed  when  shells  loaded 
with  picric-acid  mixtures  explode,  and  which  on  the  European  battle- 
fields have  earned  for  them  the  name  of  "  Jack  Johnsons." 

Toluene  l   is  a  near  relative  of  benzene;   it  is  a  liquid  slightly  less 

1  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  price  of  benzene  has  risen  from  30  cents  to  90  cents 
a  gallon  since  the  war  began.  Toluene  has  risen  in  the  same  time  from  40  cents  to  $5 
per  gallon. 


THE  ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN   THE  WAR.  363 

volatile  than  the  latter  substance,  and  is  also  a  by-product  of  the  coke 
and  gas  industry.     From  it  we  can  obtain  trinitro-toluene — 

CH3 


N02 


This  product  is  also  used  as  a  modern  high  explosive,  under  the  abbre- 
viated name  of  T.  N.  T. 

The  German  chemical  industries  are  said  to  have  accumulated  vast  stores 
of  these  and  similar  by-product  nitro-substitution  products  from  their  great  dye 
industries.  The  well-known  blue  dye,  indigo,  which  used  to  be  extracted  from 
a  plant  grown  in  India,  is  now  made  synthetically  in  Germany,  and  the  by-prod- 
ucts from  the  synthesis  furnish  some  of  the  raw  material  for  the  nitrp  bodies 
used  in  explosives.  It  is  said  to  have  taken  the  patient  German  chemists  over 
twenty  years  to  work  out  the  synthesis  of  indigo,  but  when  this  was  finally  accom- 
plished the  natural  indigo  soon  disappeared  from  the  markets  of  the  world: 

Glycerin  is  a  by-product  from  the  manufacture  of  soap.  By  nitration  we  get 
nitroglycerin,  which,  when  soaked  up  in  an  inert  earthy  powder,  we  call  dyna- 
mite. Cotton  consists  mainly  of  cellulose.  When  cotton  is  nitrated,  nitro- 
cellulose or  guncotton  is  obtained.  When  compressed  into  blocks  or  other  forms, 
this  guncotton  is  a  detonating  explosive  of  terribly  high  power,  and  is  frequently 
used  for  loading  torpedoes  and  mines.  When  made  in  a  different  way,  how- 
ever, nitrocellulose  does  not  detonate,  but  burns  rapidly,  giving  off  large  quantities 
of  hot  expanding  gases.  When  in  this  form  nitrocellulose  is  known  as  "  smoke- 
less powder."  It  is  generally  not  used  as  a  powder,  however,  but  in  the  form  of 
sticks  (cordite)  or  short  cylinders  through  which  holes  are  bored  to  facilitate 
combustion.  If  cotton  can  not  be  obtained,  as  is  probably  now  the  case  in  Ger- 
many, wood-pulp  cellulose  may  be  substituted.  It  is  said  that  gelatine  made 
from  slaughterhouse  refuse  or  dead  horses  can  in  like  manner  be  used  in  the  pro- 
duction of  nitrogelatine.  The  chemistry  of  these  substances  is  more  complicated 
than  in  the  cases  of  nitrobenzene  and  toluene,  so  that  we  need  not  attempt  to  go 
more  deeply  into  the  subject  in  this  place.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  the 
role  of  the  chemistry  of  carbon  and  nitrogen  as  this  applies  to  modern  warfare. 


III. 

THE  ROLE  OF  HYDROGEN. 

Hydrogen  is  the  lightest  gas  known,  being  about  seven  times  lighter 
than  air,  bulk  for  bulk.  The  manufacture  of  caustic  alkali  on  an 
enormous  scale  is  necessary  to  every  civilized  nation  for  the  manufacture 
of  paper,  soap,  and  many  other  necessities  of  life.  This  alkali  is  in  part 
manufactured  'by  an  electric  water-power  process  which  yields  hydrogen 
as  one  of  its  by-products.  At  present  about  30,000  electrical  horsepower 
are  employed  in  this  branch  of  industry  in  the  United  States.  In  Ger- 
many all  waste  hydrogen  is  conserved  for  filling  the  balloons  of  Zep- 
pelins and  presumably  for  making  synthetic  ammonia  by  the  Haber 


364  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

process,  as  well  as  for  other  industrial  purposes.  In  this  country 
practically  all  the  hydrogen  is  allowed  to  escape  into  the  air,  to  seek  the 
outermost  reaches  of  the  atmospheric  sea.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  we,  too,  will  meet  the  necessity 
of  conserving  our  hydrogen  as  well  as  our  other  useful  industrial 
wastes. 

The  story  of  the  development  of  the  Haber  process  for  fixing  the 
nitrogen  of  the  air  to  by-product  hydrogen  reads  like  a  fairy  tale  of 
science  wedded  to  patience.  About  twenty-five  years  ago  American 
students  of  chemistry  at  a  certain  German  university  were  surprised 
to  find  their  professors  carrying  on  patient  researches  on  methods  for 
oxidizing  ammonia  to  nitric  acid.  Since  in  those  days  nitric  acid  cost 
less  than  ammonia,  and  as  no  methods  for  fixing  the  nitrogen  of  the  air 
had  even  been  proposed,  so  much  patient  work  seemed  at  best  to  be 
premature.  The  fact  is,  however,  that  it  was  to  come  about  that  the 
great  European  war  was  to  await  the  word  "  Go!  "  not  alone  from  the 
statesmen  and  militarists,  but  also  from  the  distinguished  chemist- 
privy  councillors  (Geheimraths)  of  the  German  Empire.  At  the  meeting 
of  the  Eighth  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry  held  in 
New  York  in  September,  1912,  the  German  professor,  H.  A.  Bernthsen, 
in  the  course  of  his  address,1  said: 

1  propose,  however,   to-day  to  deal,   from  my  own  direct    experience  with 
the  development  of  the  problem  for  the  synthetical  manufacture  of  ammonia 
from  its  elements.     A  few  years  ago  the  solution  of  this  problem  appeared  to 
be  absolutely  impossible.     It  has  recently  been  the  object  of  very  painstaking 
investigations  by  Prof.  Haber  and  the  chemists  of  the  Badische  Anilin  und  Soda- 
Fabrik,  and  numerous  patents  have  been  taken  out  with  reference  to  the  manu- 
facture.    Apart  from  what  is  already  published  in  this  way,  however,  we  have 
refrained  from  any  other  announcements  until  we  were  in  a  position  to  report 
something  final  with  reference  to  the  solution  of  the  technical  question. 

This  moment  has  now  arrived,  and  I  am  in  the  agreeable  position  of  being 
able  to  inform  you  that  the  said  problem  has  now  been  solved  fully  on  a  manu- 
facturing scale,  and  that  the  walls  of  our  first  factory  for  synthetic  ammonia 
are  already  rising  above  the  ground  at  Appau,  near  Ludwigshafen-on-Rhine. 

So  much  for  the  accomplishment  of  Germany's  independence  of 
Chile  saltpeter  up  to  1912.  The  fact  that  the  contact  process  for  chang- 
ing synthetic  ammonia  to  nitric  acid  had  already  been  worked  out  tells 
us  something  of  the  vision  that  was  in  the  minds  of  German  scientists 
at  least  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago. 

But  let  us  hear  further  from  Prof.  Bernthsen  on  some  of  the  diffi- 
culties that  had  to  be  surmounted  before  this  method  of  nitrogen  fixa- 
tion was  an  accomplished  fact.  He  goes  on  to  say:  2 

i "  Synthetic  Ammonia,"  H.  A.  Bernthsen,  Trans.  Eighth  Internat.  Cong.  Applied 
Chem.,  vol.  xxviii,  pp.  185  and  186. 

2  Ibid.,  pp.  193-194,  199-200. 


THE  ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR.  365 

The  problems  to  be  solved  were  quite  new  and  strange  and  demanded  the 
mastery  of  very  unusual  difficulties.  Although  working  with  compressed  gases 
under  pressure  at  very  low  temperatures  was  already  known  in  the  industry, 
the  problem  here  was  the  totally  different  one  of  constructing  apparatus  which 
should  be  large  enough  and  at  the  same  time  able  to  withstand  the  high  pressure 
with  temperatures  not  far  from  a  red  heat.  How  well  founded  were  the  doubts 
as  to  the  possibility  of  a  solution  of  this  task  can  be  gathered  from  the  instance 
of  the  wrought-iron  autoclaves  commonly  used  in  the  color  industry.  There, 
in  spite  of  a  very  low  range  of  temperature  of  at  most  280°  C.,  only  pressures  of 
from  50  to  100  atmospheres  at  the  utmost  come  into  consideration.  But  above 
400°  C.  iron  loses  its  solidity  to  a  very  extraordinary  degree. 

There  is,  further,  the  circumstance  that  the  metals  which  come  into  con- 
sideration for  the  construction  of  the  apparatus,  and  especially  iron,  are  chem- 
ically attacked  above  certain  temperatures  by  the  gas  mixture  under  pressure. 
Although  the  formation  of  iron  nitride  from  iron  and  ammonia,  which  could 
have  been  expected  according  to  the  work  of  Fremy  and  others,  can  be  avoided, 
yet  it  is  found,  for  example,  that  steel  containing  carbon  loses  its  carbon  at  the 
temperatures  in  question,  owing  to  the  action  of  the  hydrogen,  so  that  its  capa- 
bility of  withstanding  pressure  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  It  was  further  found, 
when  using  iron  itself,  that  it  is  completely  changed  in  its  qualities,  chiefly  by 
taking  up  hydrogen.  Again,  at  such  high  temperatures  iron  is  pervious  to  quite 
a  remarkable  degree  to  hydrogen  under  high  pressures.  The  question  of  materials 
for  the  apparatus  therefore  raised  at  once  considerable  difficulties,  but  at  length 
these  were  more  than  overcome  by  suitable  construction,  details  of  which,  I 
am  sure,  you  will  not  expect  from  me  to-day.  The  danger  of  serious  explosions 
or  of  great,  sudden  flames  of  hydrogen,  if  the  apparatus  happens  to  become  de- 
fective, can  be  guarded  against  by  setting  it  up  in  bombproof  chambers. 

Great  care  must  naturally  be  taken  that  oxygen  or  air  does  not  get  into  the 
apparatus  or  the  piping,  for  at  the  high  pressure  obtaining  the  explosion  range  is 
reached  with  merely  a  slight  percentage  of  oxygen.  Special  devices  are  used 
to  watch  over  this  content  of  oxygen,  and  immediately  a  definite  percentage  is 
touched  the  alarm  is  automatically,  raised.  Besides  this,  the  proper  constitution 
of  the  gas  mixture  in  circulation  is  controlled  by  analysis  from  time  to  time. 

The  ammonia  can  be  removed  either  by  being  drawn  directly  from  the  appa- 
ratus in  liquid  form,  or  an  absorption  agent  can  be  suitably  introduced  into  the 
apparatus.  The  simplest  absorbent,  water,  has  been  found  to  be  suited  for 
this  purpose;  under  the  pressure  used  a  concentrated  solution  of  ammonia  is 
secured.  Any  ammonia  that  may  remain  in  the  gas  after  the  bulk  has  been 
removed  by  one  or  other  of  these  methods  can  be  further  removed  by  special 
chemical  means,  if  it  is  not  preferred  simply  to  leave  it  in  the  circulating  gases. 

*     *     * 

The  question  has  not  yet  been  touched  upon  in  the  foregoing,  how  the  elements 
nitrogen  and  hydrogen  which  are  requisite  for  the  new  ammonia  process  can 
best  be  produced  on  a  technical  scale.  Theoretically,  the  task  would  be  unusually 
simple.  If  you  remember  that  the  terrestrial  atmosphere,  according  to  the  studies 
of  A.  Wagener  and  others,  consists  of  practically  pure  hydrogen  at  a  height  of 
about  120  kilometers — indeed,  at  a  height  of  about  70  kilometers  consists  of 
almost  exactly  one  volume  of  nitrogen  and  three  volumes  of  hydrogen,  besides  a 
trace  (about  one-half  per  cent)  of  oxygen — you  will  understand  that  all  the  con- 
ditions were  given  for  an  ammonia  factory  according  to  Jules  Verne;  for  it  would 
then  merely  be  necessary  to  suck  down  the  gases  from  the  higher  strata  of  the  atmos- 
phere by  a  sufficiently  long  pipe  line. 

For  us,  poor  mortals,  matters  are  not  so  ideally  simple,  for,  as  the  poet  says: 

Hart  im  Raume  stossen  sich  die  Sachen. 

Fortunately,  however,  there  is  no  great  difficulty  in  separating  nitrogen  from 
the  air,  either  by  physical  means,  according  to  Linde's  process  or  chemically, 
by  removing  the  oxygen  with  glowing  copper,  burning  hydrogen,  or  the  like. 
And  lor  the  preparation  of  hydrogen  in  recent  times  a  great  deal  of  useful  work 
has  been  done,  too,  owing  to  the  extensive  growth  of  its  field  of  application.  In 
certain  works  it  is  at  disposal  in  large  quantities  as  a  by-product  of  the  elec- 
trolysis of  common  salt.  Besides  this,  it  can  be  produced,  for  example,  by  pass- 
ing steam  over  red-hot  iron,  or  from  water  gas,  for  instance,  by  separating  its 
constituents,  hydrogen  and  carbon  monoxide,  by  cooling  to  a  very  low  tern- 


366  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

perature.  All  the  methods  of  preparation  which  come  into  consideration  we 
have,  of  course,  minutely  examined ;  owing  to  the  comparatively  trifling  differ- 
ences in  the  cost  of  production  various  methods  can  be  employed.  At  all  events, 
both  elements,  nitrogen  and  hydrogen,  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  new  industry 
to  any  extent  and  sufficiently  cheap. 

As  the  production  of  these  elements  is  not  confined  to  the  presence  of  cheap 
water  power,  all  those  countries  where  the  manufacture  of  calcium  nitrate,  owing 
to  the  want  of  such  power,  is  not  practicable,  as,  for  instance,  in  Germany,  are 
now  in  a  position  to  profit  by  the  new  industry. 

The  above-quoted  matter  makes  interesting  reading,  in  the  light 
of  the  history  of  the  past  three  years.  The  synthesis  of  ammonia  by 
the  Haber  process  takes  place  by  heating  a  mixture  of  hydrogen  and 
nitrogen  gas  under  enormous  pressures  in  great  alloy-steel  bombs  buried 
in  bombproof  cellars  and  then  rapidly  withdrawing  and  cooling  the 

— H 
synthetic  ammonia  (N — H)  which  is  formed.    But  this  is  not  all  of 

— H 
the  story. 

Even  when  all  these  titanic  arrangements  have  been  made  the  syn- 
thesis of  ammonia  does  not  take  place  unless  a  catalyst  is  present. 

Is  this  fairy  tale  of  science  getting  too  deep  for  ordinary  compre- 
hension, and  is  it  time,  as  Lewis  Carroll's  walrus  said,  to  talk  of  other 
things,  such  as  ships  and  shoes  and  sealing  wax  and  cabbages  and  kings? 

But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  could  a  world  war  be  declared  or  waged 
without  every  one  of  those  four  things  or  the  things  they  stand  for 
that  the  walrus  wanted  to  talk  about? 

And  now  we  are  also  to  learn  that  a  world  war  cannot  be  waged 
without  a  catalyst.  And  what  on  earth  is  a  catalyst? 

Those  who  wish  to  follow  this  monster  to  its  lair  must  be  referred 
to  the  dictionaries  and  encyclopedias;  but,  after  all,  it  is  not  so  fright- 
ful as  it  sounds.  In  a  few  words,  the  meaning  is  this:  A  number  of 
important  and  difficult  chemical  reactions  v,ill  not  take  place,  or  only 
very  slowly,  unless  some  substance  is  present  in  such  a  manner  that 
it  can  come  into  contact  with  the  reacting  bodies  and  thus  act  the  role 
of  a  go-between  promoter  or  introducer.  Such  a  substance  is  not  changed 
or  necessarily  wasted  while  the  action  is  going  on,  but  acts  merely  by 
contact. 

Chemists  have  called  this  kind  of  action  catalysis.  Some  one  has 
said  that  the  industrial  development  of  a  nation  can  be  measured  by  the 
"quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  that  it  produces,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note, 
in  passing,  that  catalysts  or  contact  agents  have,  in  modern  times, 
revolutionized  the  production  of  this  most  important  substance.  Cata- 
lysts consist  usually  of  some  metal  or  compound  of  a  metal  in  finely 
powdered  or  subdivided  form.  As  they  are  not  used  up  or  wasted  in 


THE  ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR.  367 

doing  their  work,  and  only  comparatively  small  quantities  are  needed, 
the  rarest  and  most  expensive  metals,  such,  for  instance,  as  platinum, 
can  be  used  even  in  very  large-scale  operations.  Haber  found  that  such 
rare  and  unusual  metals  as  molybdenum  and  tungsten  made  excellent 
catalysts  for  promoting  the  synthesis  of  ammonia.  But  here  we  have  to 
refer  to  one  of  the  most  curious  facts  that  has  been  developed  by  modern 
chemical  research.  It  has  been  found  that  these  catalysts  can  be  poisoned 
by  certain  things  very  much  in  the  same  way  as  though  they  were  living 
cells.  That  is  to  say,  there  are  substances  which  hinder  or  prevent 
or  kill  the 'activity  of  these  catalysts,  although  the  contact  mass  does 
not  suffer  a  noticeable  chemical  change,  envelopment,  or  destruction. 
For  instance,  traces  of  arsenic  mixed  with  the  sulphur  from  which  sul- 
phuric acid  is  made  will  poison  the  platinum  catalyzer,  whereas  it  has 
been  found  that,  on  the  contrary,  the  presence  of  arsenic  will  act 
favorably  (or  medicinally,  as  it  were)  when  iron  oxide  is  used  as  a  catalyst. 
We  are  now  prepared  to  hear  Prof.  Bernthsen  1  on  this  subject 
and  to  admire  and  marvel  at  the  persistence  and  painstaking  efforts 
made  by  modern  science  to  overcome  the  obstacles  with  which  Nature 
seems  to  surround  her  most  profound  secrets: 

It  has  now  been  ascertained  that  some  of  the  poisons  in  the  synthesis  of 
ammonia  are  of  quite  a  different  nature  from  those  of  the  sulphuric-acid  process; 
they  are,  for  instance,  sulphur,  selenium,  tellurium,  phosphorus,  arsenic,  boron, 
or  the  compounds  of  these  elements,  such  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  arsenic 
hydride,  phosphorus  hydride,  as  also  many  carbon  compounds  and  certain  metals 
of  low  melting-point  which  can  readily  be  reduced  by  hydrogen  from  their  com- 
pounds; for  example,  lead,  bismuth,  and  tin,  which  do  not  act  catalytically. 
Oxygen-sulphur  compounds  such  as  SCh,  which  acts  directly  and  smoothly  in  the 
sulphuric-acid  catalysis,  are  very  poisonous.  Extremely  minute  quantities  of 
these  bodies,  which  are  almost  always  present,  even  in  the  purest  commercial 
products  or  in  the  so-called  pure  gases,  suffice  to  render  the  catalysts  absolutely 
inactive,  or  at  least  to  diminish  their  action  very  seriously.  Thus  iron,  for  example, 
prepared  from  ordinary  iron  oxide  with  a  content  of  one  per  thousand  of  sodium 
sulphate,  is,  as  a  rule,  inactive.  Iron  containing  one-tenth  per  cent  of  sulphur 
is  generally  quite  useless,  and  even  with  one-hundredth  per  cent  is  of  very  little 
use,  although  in  appearance  and  when  examined  with  the  ordinary  physical  and 
chemical  methods  no  difference  at  all  can  be  detected  as  compared  with  pure  iron. 

The  recognition  of  these  facts  gave  rise  to  twro  problems: 

(a)  The  preparation  of  contact  masses  free  from  poison  or  the  removal  of 
such  poisons  from  them;  and 

(6)  Freeing  the  gases  to  be  acted  on  catalytically  from  all  contact  poisons. 

In  order  to  free  the  contact  bodies  from  these  harmful  substances  the  ordi- 
nary methods  for  removing  them  can,  of  course,  be  applied.  The  contact  action 
can  also  be  improved  by  heating  contact  metals  which  are  inactive  or  of  little 
use,  owing  to  the  presence  of  contact  poisons,  in  the  presence  of  oxygen  or  of 
bodies  yielding  oxygen.  Or  the  metals  can  be  heated,  for  instance,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  oxygen,  with  the  addition  of  suitable  compounds,  such  as  bases,  and 
the  resulting  products  reduced.  These  operations  can  be  repeated  if  neces- 
sary. If  more  of  such  a  body  as  mentioned  is  added  than  is  necessary,  it  may 
act  not  merely  by  removing  the  poisons,  but  promote  the  yield,  as  I  have  already 
described  to  you. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  necessary,  as  I  remarked,  to  take  the  greatest  care 
that  nitrogen  and  hydrogen  are  free  or  freed  completely  from  all  contact  poisons. 

1"  Synthetic  Ammonia,"  H.  A.  Bernthsen,  Trans.  Eighth  Internat.  Cong.  Applied 
Chem..  vol.  xxviii,  pp.  197-199. 


368  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

Thus  a  trace  of  sulphur,  one  p£rt  per  million,  in  the  gas  mixture  can  under  cer- 
tain conditions  be  injurious,  so  that  even  electrolytically  prepared  hydrogen 
must  generally  be  further  specially  purified.  The  minute  purification  of  the  gases 
is  even  more  important  when  hydrogen  prepared,  for  example,  from  the  water 
gas  is  used.  The  impurities,  too,  taken  up  from  iron  piping  play  sometimes  an 
important  part,  and  impurities  which  get  into  the  gases  during  the  compression, 
such  as  machine  oil,  often  have  a  harmful  effect. 

The  best  method  of  removing  impurities  from  the  gas  mixture  depends,  in 
turn,  on  the  nature  of  these  impurities  and  consists,  for  instance,  according  to 
the  case,  in  filtering,  washing,  conducting  over  solid  absorption  agents,  and 
so  on.  One  good  method  is  to  bring  the  gases  into  contact  with  the  material 
of  which  the  contact  mass  is  prepared  at  a  raised  temperature  before  passing 
them  over  the  actual  catalyst.  The  material  takes  up  the  impurities,  and  must, 
of  course,  be  renewed  from  time  to  time.  The  negative  results  of  earlier  inves- 
tigators in  the  formation  of  ammonia  when  using  base  contact  metals  (Wright, 
Ramsay,  and  Young,  and  more  recently  again,  1911,  Neogi  and  Adhicary), 
according  to  which  nitrogen  and  hydrogen  do  not  combine  in  the  presence  of 
iron,  are,  in  my  opinion,  probably  due  for  the  most  part  at  least,  to  the  use 
of  metals  or  gases  not  free  from  contact  poison.  That  previous  inquirers  had 
not  the  remotest  idea  that  sulphur  in  the  contact  metal  could  be  injurious  is 
evident  from  the  fact  that  they  passed  the  gases  without  hesitation  through 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  in  order  to  dry  them.  The  sulphuric  acid  thus 
taken  up  and  the  sulphur  dioxide  often  contained  in  it  can  poison  even  the  best 
catalyst  very  speedily  and  render  it  unfit  for  use.  Or  the  contact  metals  were 
sometimes  prepared  directly  from  the  sulphates,  although  a  metal  sufficiently 
free  from  sulphur  can  scarcely  be  obtained  by  this  method. 

A  painstaking  study,  for  which  we  are  indebted  principally  to  Dr.  A.  Mittasch 
and  which  involved  literally  many  thousands  of  experiments,  has  afforded  an 
insight  into  the  importance  of  substances  of  the  most  varied  nature  as  promot- 
ers and  poisons,  and  thus  a  sure  foundation  has  been  prepared  for  a  reliable  con- 
tinuous manufacture  with  a  good  yield  of  ammonia. 

This  is  a  wonderful  story  that  has  been  here  set  forth,  and  should 
show  very  clearly  that  modern  warfare  depends  not  alone  upon  the 
work  of  a  general  military  and  naval  staff  or  upon  the  drilling  and  mar- 
shalling of  millions,  but,  first  and  foremost,  upon  the  systematic  and 
painstaking  researches  of  scientists,  who,  to  use  a  homely  expression, 
might  be  said  to  be  twisting  reluctant  Nature's  tail  in  the  effort  to  make 
her  march  in  the  desired  path. 


IV. 

THE  ROLE  OF  THE  HALOGENS. 

No  description  of  the  role  of  chemistry  in  modern  warfare  would  be 
quite  complete  without  some  reference  to  the  poisonous  gases  and  flames 
with  which  modern  armies  seek  to  ruin  and  devastate  one  another. 
A  vast  amount  of  terrifying  descriptive  matter  has  appeared  in  the  press 
accounts  of  the  great  war,  but  very  little  accurate  scientific  information 
on  this  awful  contribution  of  chemistry  has  as  yet  been  made  available. 

We  may  safely  discount  as  untrue  the  extraordinary  stories  of 
soldiers  asphyxiated  and  left  standing  or  sitting  rigidly  in  the  posi- 
tions in  which  they  were  overcome.  It  is  possible  that  bombs  have 
been  hurled  that  set  free  prussic  acid  or  the  deadly  cyanogen  gas  (CN), 


THE  ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR.  369 

another  form  of  fixed  nitrogen.  It  is  more  probable,  however,  that 
the  most  deadly  effects  have  been  produced  by  the  use  of  a  group  of 
very  active  chemical  elements  known  as  the  halogens.  By  the  name  of 
"  halogens,"  meaning  salt-formers,  chemists  distinguish  the  group  of 
closely  allied  elements,  chlorine,  bromine,  and  iodine.  At  ordinary 
temperatures  and  pressure,  chlorine,  is  a  greenish-colored  gas,  bromine 
is  a  dark-red  fuming  liquid,  and  iodine  is  a  beautiful  violet-colored  solid. 
At  temperatures  slightly  above  the  ordinary  bromine  and  iodine  turn 
to  heavy  red  and  violet  vapors.  Chlorine  is  found  in  nature  fixed  to  the 
element  sodium  in  common  salt  (sodium  chloride).  Sodium  and  other 
bromides  are  found  accompanying  common  salt,  while  the  principal 
source  of  iodine  is  seaweed,  as  marine  growths  have  the  power  of  collect- 
ing and  concentrating  iodides  from  salt  water.  It  is  characteristic  of 
the  halogens  that  they  are  among  the  most  active  chemical  agents  known. 
When  in  a  free  state  they  seem  anxious  to  combine  with  anything  they 
can  take  hold  of,  and  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  human  throat,  lungs, 
and  eyes  is  peculiarly  sensitive  to  their  corrosive  action.  Chlorine 
gas,  the  most  active  of  the  family,  is  obtained  in  enormous  quantities 
in  the  same  way  that  hydrogen  is,  as  a  by-product  from  the  electric 
process  of  manufacturing  caustic  alkali  from  common  salt. 

In  the  arts  of  peace  chlorine  has  an  important  use  as  a  bleaching 
agent  in  the  paper  and  other  industries.  When  compressed  into  steel 
cylinders,  it  can  be  liquefied  and  thus  shipped  from  one  point  to  another, 
or  it  can  be  absorbed  in  lime  to  form  the  well-known  chloride  of  lime 
or  bleaching  powder.  In  war  liquefied  chlorine  contained  in  steel 
shells  can  be  burst  among  the  enemy,  and  when  the  conditions  are 
favorable  terrible  effects  can  thus  be  produced. 

Bromine  has  never  found  any  extended  use  in  the  peaceful  arts, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  has  been  stated  that  the  German  Govern- 
ment has  been  for  a  number  of  years  offering  a  prize  for  the  discovery 
of  a  practical  use  for  it.  Bromine  is  also  a  by-product  material  which 
has  been  largely  allowed  to  escape  in  this  country,  but  which  in  Germany 
has  been  saved  in  increasing  quantities  for  years.1  In  war  bromine 

1  BROMINE. — Both  technical  and  U.  S.  P.  descriptions  of  this  commodity  continue  in 
scanty  supply  and  strongly  held  at  a  minimum  of  $5  by  leading  manufacturers,  while 
maintained  at  $6  and  even  at  $6.50  by  second  hands.  Reports  to  the  effect  that  the  recent 
sha-p  uplift  of  prices  for  this  article  has  been  due  to  the  operations  of  a  syndicate  of 
makers  in  Michigan,  Ohio,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia,  are  not  credited  by  those  in  a 
position  to  know,  as  it  is  obvious  that  the  growing  shortage,  due  to  recent  heavy  sales  on 
contracts  to  European  users,  is  alone  responsible  for  this  upward  movement  of  prices. 
Seemingly  this  extensive  export  movement  of  bromine  can  not  be  forbidden  by  the  United 
States  Government  authorities  or  virtually  prohibited  by  a  high  export  tax,  without  enact- 
ment to  this  effect  by  Congress.  Efforts  to  prevent  further  heavy  shipments  of  this  com- 
modity to  foreign  countries  have  recently  been  made  in  vain  by  manufacturers  of  bromide 
who  complained  of  this  export  movement  to  the  Secretary  of  Commerce,  only  to  be  referred 
to  a  special  investigator  in  New  York  City,  who  informed  him  that  the-  Government  was 
powerless  to  interfere  with  this  business. — Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter,  New  York 
Dec.  20,  1915,  p.  44. 


370  NOTES  ON  MILITARY  EXPLOSIVES. 

is  even  more  terrible  than  chlorine,  for  it  possesses  the  property  of  espe- 
cially attacking  the  eyes,  even  producing  blindness  in  large  doses.  If 
it -comes  in  contact  with  the  skin  it  produces  horrible  burns  which  are 
slow  to  heal.  When  chlorine  gas  is  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with 
bromine  under  certain  controlled  conditions,  they  combine  together  to 
form  a  limpid  fuming  liquid,  known  as  chlorine  of  bromine,  which 
combines  the  properties  of  both  elements.  It  is  said  that  this  awful 
substance  is  the  material  that  the  warring  nations  have  been  hurling  at 
each  other  in  shells,  bombs,  and  hand  grenades,  although  exact  facts 
regarding  these  dreadful  practices  will  probably  not  be  available  until 
after  the  war  is  over. 

The  role  of  iodine  in  the  war  is  probably  of  a  more  kindly  nature; 
it  is  not  nearly  so  active  an  agent  as  the  other  two  members  of  its  fam- 
ily, and  when  dissolved  in  alcohol  to  make  a  tincture  it  has  saved 
many  lives  on  the  battlefield  when  used  as  an  antiseptic  on  open 
wounds. 

Some  of  the  newspaper  accounts  have  described  gas  bombs  which 
exploded  with  dense  violet  fumes.  If  true,  this  points  to  the  use  of 
iodine  also  for  this  destructive  purpose,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  such 
a  use  is  common,  owing  to  the  higher  cost,  greater  scarcity,  and  limited 
activity  of  iodine  as  compared  with  the  other  halogens. 

Much  has  also  been  written  in  regard  to  the  masks  or  breathers 
resorted  to  for  protection  from  these  dangerous  gases.  There  are  a 
number  of  chemical  substances  which  are  absorbents  of  chlorine  and 
bromine  and  with  which  they  can  combine  or  fix  themselves.  Such 
chemicals  spread  between  layers  of  fabric  or  liquids  in  which  fabric 
masks  .can  be  soaked  probably  furnish  such  means  as  are  available 
for  protection. 


CONCLUSION 

Besides  the  role  of  chemistry  in  war,  the  allied  art  of  metallurgy 
plays  an  important  part.  New  steels  and  alloys  have  to  be  devised, 
tested,  and  finally  manufactured,  suitable  for  the  varied  needs  of  war. 
Aeroplanes,  dirigibles,  and  submarines  all  require  materials  with  special 
physical  characteristics.  It  is  said  that  the  metallurgists  of  Germany 
had  to  devise  a  new  steel  alloy  before  the  Haber  process  for  fixing  nitro- 
gen could  be  successfully  worked  on  the  large  scale  of  operation.  Space 
here  does  not  permit  of  a  description  of  these  special  metals,  but  per- 
haps enough  has  been  said  to  give  the  reader  a  general  purview  of  the 
role  of  chemistry  in  war. 


THE  ROLE  OF  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR.  371 

Although  it  has  been  shown  that  chemistry  is  the  handmaiden  of 
war,  and  that  this  last  great  struggle  is  indeed  a  chemists'  war,  as  Dr. 
L.  H.  Baekeland  has  recently  so  happily  phrased  it : l 

Do  not  imagine  that  this  is  the  first  chemical  war.  The  art  of  killing  and 
robbing  each  other  became  chemical  the  day  gunpowder  was  invented;  at  that 
time,  however,  the  existing  knowledge  of  chemistry  was  just  of  pinhead  size. 
Napoleon  knew  very  well  how  to  use  adroitly  exact  knowledge  and  chemistry 
for  furthering  his  insatiable  ambition  to  dominate  the  world;  so  he  surrounded 
himself  with  the  most  able  chemical  advisers  and  scientists.  Ever  since  then 
science,  technology,  and  chemistry  in  particular  have  played  a  role  of  increas- 
ing importance  in  the  armament  of  nations.  .  .  . 

Do  not  reproach  chemistry  with  the  fact  that  nitrocellulose,  of  which  the  first 
application  was  to  heal  wounds  and  to  advance  the  art  of  photography,  was 
stolen  away  from  these  ultrapacific  purposes  for  making  smokeless  powder  and 
for  loading  torpedoes.  Do  not  curse  the  chemist  when  phenol,  which  revolu- 
tionized surgery,  turned  from  a  blessing  to  humanity  into  a  fearful  explosive 
after  it  had  been  discovered  that  nitration  changes  it  into  picric  acid. 

Let  us  hope,  in  the  meantime,  that  war  carried  to  its  modern  logical  grue- 
someness,  shorn  of  all  its  false  glamour,  deceptive  picturesqueness,  and  rhetor- 
ical bombast,  exposed  in  all  the  nakedness  of  its  nasty  horrors,  may  hurry  along 
the  day  when  we  shall  be  compelled  to  accept  means  for  avoiding  its  repetition. 

Americans,  North  or  South,  probably  without  exception  will  join 
eagerly  in  the  hope  thus  eloquently  expressed,  but  in  the  meantime 
and  under  present  conditions  a  strong,  rich  nation  can  no  more  exist 
without  adequate  means  of  self-defense  than  a  modern  city  could  exist 
without  a  trained  police  force  and  fire  department.  This  paper  has 
shown  that  fixed  nitrogen  is  the  first  and  most  important  element  of 
national  defense.  The  paper  will  have  well  served  the  author's  purpose 
in  preparing  it  if  it  should  succeed  even  to  a  slight  extent  in  calling  atten- 
tion to  the  necessity  for  purchasing  and  storing  at  a  central  point 
an  adequate  supply  of  Chilean  nitrate.  As  an  alternative,  arrangements 
should  be  made  which  would  have  the  effect  of  inducing  capital  to  exploit 
in  this  country  the  fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen. '  The  fact  that  fixed 
nitrogen  will  become  an  increasingly  important  factor  in  the  production 
of  food  simply  means  that,  come  peace  or  war,  foresighted  preparation 
will  not  under  any  circumstances  be  unprofitable  or  in  vain. 

1  "  Chemical  Industry,"  address  by  Dr.  L.  H.  Baekeland  before  the  American,  Chemical 
Society,  Seattle,  Wash.,  Aug.  31,  1915. 


LIST  OF  ATOMIC  WEIGHTS  REVISED  TO  1917. 


Sym- 
bol. 

Atomic 
weight. 

Sym- 
bol. 

Atomic 
weight. 

Aluminum  

Al 

27.1 

Molybdenum  

Mo 

96  0 

Antimony 

Sb 

120  2 

Neodymium 

Nd 

144  Q 

Argon 

A 

39.88 

Neon 

Ne 

20  9 

Ars6nic 

As 

74.96 

Nickel 

Ni 

CjQ    AQ 

Barium  
Bismuth. 

Ba 
Bi 

137.37 
208  0 

Niton  (radium  emanation) 
Nitrogen. 

Nt 
N 

222.4 
14  01 

Boron 

B 

11  0 

Osmium 

Os 

190  9 

Bromine 

Br 

79  92 

Oxygen. 

o 

16  00 

Cadmium      .  .    . 

Cd 

112  40 

Palladium 

Pd 

106  7 

Caesium         

Cs 

132.81 

Phosphorus 

p 

31  04 

Calcium.        

Ca 

40.07 

Platinum 

Pt 

195  2 

Carbon  

c 

12  .  005 

Potassium    

K 

39  10 

Cerium  

Ce 

140.25 

Praseodymium  

Pr 

140  9 

Chlorine  . 

Cl 

35.46 

Radium  

Ra 

226  0 

Chromium 

Cr 

52  0 

Rhodium 

Rh 

102  9 

Cobalt  

Co 

58.97 

Rubidium.  .  .  ;  

Rb 

85  45 

Columbium 

Cb 

93  1 

Ruthenium 

Ru 

101  7 

Copper 

Cu 

63  57 

Samarium 

Sa 

150  4 

Dysprosium 

Dy 

162  5 

Scandium 

Sc 

44  1 

Erbium 

F,r 

167  7 

Selenium 

Se 

79  2 

Europium 

Eu 

152  0 

Silicon. 

Si 

28  3 

Fluorine. 

F 

19  0 

Silver 

Ag 

107  88 

Gadolinium.    . 

Gd 

157.3 

Sodium. 

Na 

23  00 

Gallium         

Ga 

69.9 

Strontium  

Sr 

87  63 

Germanium  

Ge 

72.5 

Sulphur  

S 

32  06 

Glucinum  .  

Gl 

9.1 

Tantalum  

Ta 

181  5 

Gold 

Au 

197  2 

Tellurium 

Te 

127  5 

Helium 

He 

4  00 

Terbium. 

Tb 

159  2 

Holmium 

Ho 

163  5 

Thallium 

Tl 

204  0 

Hydrogen 

H 

1  008 

Thorium  

Th 

232  4 

Indium. 

In 

114.8 

Thulium  

Tm 

168  5 

Iodine 

I 

126  .  92 

Tin  

Sn 

118  7 

Iridium      

Ir 

193.1 

Titanium  

Ti 

48  1 

Iron 

Fe 

55  84 

Tungsten 

W 

184  0 

Krypton 

Kr 

82  92 

Uranium 

u 

238  2 

Lanthanum 

La 

139  0 

Vanadium 

V 

51  0 

Lead 

Pb 

207  20 

Xenon.  .  . 

Xe 

130  2 

Lithium 

Li 

6  94 

Ytterbium  (Neoytterbium) 

Yb 

173  5 

Lutecium 

Lu 

175  0 

Yt 

88  7 

Magnesium 

Mg 

24  32 

Zinc 

Zn 

65  37 

IManganese 

Mn 

54  93 

Zirconium 

Zr 

90  6 

Mercury  

Hg 

200.6 

See  Report  of  the  International  Committee  on  Atomic  Weights,  1917. 


372 


INDEX. 


ABBOT,  159 

Abel,  77,  80,  138,  141,  161 

Acceptance  of  powder,  130 

Acetates,  49 

Acetic  acid,  82,  89 

Acetone,  51,  82,  84,  132 

Acetyl,  64 

Acetylene,  65 

Acid  anhydrides,  12 

Acid  color,  231 

Acids,  9-14,  16;   fortifying,  124;   on 

clothing,  302;  nitrating,  124;  spent, 

124 

^Etna  powder,  158 
Affinity,  chemical,  5,  96;   conditions 

influencing,  35 
Alcohol,  51,  65,  810,  82,  83,  108,  129, 

132,  191 
Alkalies,  16 
Alkaline  earths,  16 
Alloys,  23,  24 
Amalgams,  24 
Amidogen,  17 
Ammonal,  50,  56 
Ammonium  nitrate,  55-7 
Ammonium  picrate,  80 
Ammunition,  transportation  of,  307, 

308,  317,  339,  340,  342 
Amyloid,  89 
Analytical  reactions,  8 
Anhydrides,  12,  15 
Apparatus    (for    laboratory    experi- 
ments), 292 

Appendix,  271,  305,  349 
Arrangement  of  explosive  charges  for 

demolitions,  266,  267 
Artiad,  19 

Ash,  nitrocellulose,  197 
Atlas  powder,  156,  158 
Atom,  2,  3,  5,  19,  28,  35 
Atomic  heat,  35 
Atomic  mass,  32 
Atomic  properties,  3 
Atomic  space,  29,  39 
Atomic  weights,  3,  4,  29,  31-36,  38; 

International,  372 


Austen,  Dr.  Peter  T.,  161 
Avidity,  14 
Avogadro's  Law,  28,  32 

BALLISTIC  efficiency  of  powder,  133 

Ballistite,  136 

Barium  nitrate,  57 

Barriers,  264 

Base,  chemical,  9-10,  15-16;  of 
dynamites,  152;  of  nitrocellulose 
110,  123;  of  nitroglycerine,  158 

Basicity,  13,  14 

Bath,  sand,  298;  water,  297 

Beaker,  295 

Benzene  hydroxides,  74,  75 

Benzenes,  65,  67;  nitro-,  68;  mono- 
nitro-,  68;  dinitro-,  70;  trinitro-, 
71. 

Bernadou,  112,  120 

Berthelot,  141,  143,  144,  152,  159 

Binary  compounds,  9,  11 

Binary  rule,  13 

Black  powder,  98;  manufacture  of, 
98-103;  ingredients  of,  98;  prep- 
aration of  ingredients,  98;  sifting, 
99;  mixing,  100;  incorporation, 
100;  mill-cake,  101;  press-cake, 
102;  granulation,  102;  dusting, 
.103;  glazing,  103;  drying,  103; 
packing,  103;  transportation  of, 
314,  322,  338 

Blasting,  253-257 

Blasting  caps,  175,  176;  transporta- 
tion of,  312,  319,  323,  338 

Blasting  gelatin,  159 

Blending,  130,  139 

Blow-pipe,  298 

Bloxam,  148,  168 

Blue  fire,  58 

BN  powder,  132 

Body,  2 

Boiling,  effect  of,  on  nitrocellulose, 
119,  193 

Boiling-point,  25 

Bores  of  guns,  increase  of  lengths  of, 
106 

373 


374 


INDEX. 


Bottles,  double-neck,  302 

Breaking-down  machine,  101 

Brick  wall,  demolition,  268 

Bridges,  demolition  of,  257-261;  ma- 
sonry, 257;  wooden,  259;  iron, 
259;  suspension,  261 

Bromine,  role  of,  in  war,  90,  369 

Brown  powder,  104;  manufacture  of, 
104;  ingredients  of,  104 

Brugere,  77,  80,  161 

Bruley,  110,  112-119;  table,  116; 
general  results,  117 

Buildings,  demolition  of,  253 

Butyric  acid,  89 

By-products,  nitro-,  110, 119, 139, 179 

CALORIFIC  intensity,  92-3,  96 

Calorific  value,  92-93,  96 

Cap  composition,  174 

Caps,  167,  178,  241 

Caps,  blasting,  transportation  of,  312, 
319,  323,  338 

Carbohydrates,  67 

Carbolic  acid,  74 

Carbon,  61;  role  of  in  war,  359 

Carbonate  of  soda,  192 

Carbonates,  13,  49 

Carbonyl,  17,  64 

Carboxyl,  64 

Cars  for  shipment  of  explosives,  in- 
spection, selection  and  prepara- 
tion, placarding  and  certification 
of  contents,  loading,  handling,  see 
Appendix  II,  page  305 

Cartridges,  ball,  powder  for,  209 

Cavendish,  55 

Cellulose,  51,  81fc,  86-90,  190;  an  al- 
cohol, 81/i,  107;  structural  formula 
of,  88-9;  nitration  of,  110 

Certificates  of  shipment  of  explosives, 
331 

Chambers  in  guns,  107 

Chance -Glaus,  59 

Charcoal,  61-64;  function  of,  in  ex- 
plosives, 61;  source  of,  62;  cylin- 
der-, 62;  pit-,  62;  charring-,  62; 
mixture  of,  with  sulphur,  63;  mix- 
ture of,  with  nitrates,  63;  absorp- 
tion of  gases  by,  63;  spontaneous 
combustion  of,  63;  from  rye  straw, 
63;  analysis  of,  64;  powders,  98 

Charges  for  demolition,  arrangement 
of,  266;  weights  of,  255,  261,  262, 
266,  267,  268 

Charging  shell  and  torpedoes,  241 

Chemical  affinity,  5 

Chemical  properties,  22 

Chemical  reactions,  8 


Chemical  tests,  10 

Chemistry,  principles  of,  1;  organic, 
21;  inorganic,  21;  objects,  22; 
role  of  in  war,  38,  349 

Chili  saltpeter,  54,  55 

Chlorates,  49,  51,  58 

Chlorides,  13 

Classification  of  explosives,  91,  98, 
214,  215;  for  transportation,  310 

Cleaning  of  raw  material  before  ni- 
trating cellulose,  123 

Collodion,  112,  121 

Colloiding,  127 

Colloidization,  122,  127 

Colloids,  121,  209;  ether-alcohol 
series  of,  122,  132,  133;  acetone 
series  of,  122,  132,  133 

Color  tests,  10,  76,  180,  236 

Combination,  chemical,  10 

Combustibles,  51 

Combustion,  92 

Commercial  explosives,  energy  of,  267 

Composite  colloids,  133,  134 

Composite  powders,  130-134,  161 

Composition  cap,  174 

Compound  explosive,  107 

Compounds,  3;  binary,  9,  11;  qua- 
ternary, 15;  ternary,  15;  of  or- 
ganic origin,  64 

Condensation,  25;  law  of,  30-31,  39; 
of  moisture  in  magazines,  221 

Connecting  up  lead  wires,  246 

Cope,  W.  C.,  176 

Cordite,  48,  132,  134 

Cork-borer,  301 

Cork  dynamite,  157 

Corpuscle,  2 

Corpuscular  theory  of  matter,  2 

Crucibles,  297 

Cundill,  161,  162 

Curves,  "  dry-house,"  packed,  loss, 
189,  198 

Cushman,  Allerton  S.,  Ph.D.,  38, 
349 

Cyanogen,  17 

DEAD  oil,  72 

Decomposing  explosives,  powder, 
231,  232;  guncotton,  138;  nitro- 
glycerine, 151 

Decomposition,  27,  95 

Definitions  of  explosives,  310    • 

Dehydrating,  127,  199 

Deliquescence,  25 

Delivery  of  powder,  130 

Demolitions,  252-268;  classification 
of,  252;  of  revetment  walls,  252, 
268;  of  buildings,  253;  of  masonry 


INDEX. 


375 


bridges,  257-259,  268;  of  wooden 
bridges,  259;  of  iron  bridges,  259; 
of  suspension  bridges,  261;  of 
masonry  piers,  261,  268;  of  iron 
plates,  262,  268;  subaqueous,  262; 
of  tunnels,  263;  of  stockades  and 
barriers,  264-268;  of  railroads,  264; 
of  trees  and  beams,  267-268;  of  a 
brick  wall,  268;  of  field  guns,  268; 
of  siege  guns,  268;  of  sea-coast 
guns,  263;  of  steel  rails,  268;  ar- 
rangement of  charges  for,  266,  267; 
safety  precautions  in  handling 
charges,  242-243;  firing  charges, 
244;  weights  of  charges  for,  255, 
261,  262,  266,  267,  268 

Designolles,  80,  161 

Detonating  explosives,  135-166 

Detonating  fuses,  transportation  of, 
312,  322,  328,  338 

Detonating  primers,  175 

Detonation,  95 

Dichlorides,  48 

Die-press,  128 

Dimensions  of  powder  grains,  201 

Dimethyl-ketone,  83 

Dinitrobenzene,  69,  70,  71 

Dinitrocellulose,  109 

Dinitroglycerine,  145 

Dinitronaphthalene,  74 

Dissociation,  26,  94,  95,  96,  106,  173 

Distillation,  25 

Dope,  152 

Double-neck  bottles,  302 

Drowning,  125,  146 

Drying  powder,  103,  129,  196,  200; 
cotton,  124 

Dulong,  35 

Dunn,  Col.  B.  W.,  238 

Dusting,  103 

Dynamites,  152-158,  182,  230,  265; 
general  and  special  meaning  of,  152, 
153;  base,  152;  dope,  152;  kinds 
of  bases,  152;  classification  of,  152; 
inert  bases,  152;  active  bases,  152; 
modification  of  bases,  to  suit  work, 
152;  kieselguhr,  153,  155;  No.  1, 
153,  155,  156;  No.  2,  153,  155,  156; 
No.  3,  153;  manufacture  of,  153, 
154;  sensitiveness  of,  154;  igniting 
point  of,  154;  effect  of  heat  on,  154, 
157;  "leaking"  of,  154;  freezing 
of,  155;  thawing  of,  155;  use  of, 
155;  limiting  per  cent  of  nitro- 
glycerine in,  155;  physical  prop- 
erties of,  155;  explosive  force  of, 
155;  examples  of,  156;  effect  of 
light  on,  157;  storage  stability  of, 


157;  effect  of  water  on,  157;  means 
of  exploding,  157;  table  of  dyna- 
mites, 158;  gelatin,  161;  heat  test 
of,  182;  storage  regulations  for, 
230;  transportation  of,  309,  310 

E.  C.  powder,  134 

Ecrasite,  77 

Eder,  110;  series  of  nitrations,  111 

Efficiency  of  powders,  131 

Eissler,  154 

Electric  primers,  174-178 

Elements,  3-4,  9,  372 

Empirical  formula,  41 

Endothermic,  26,  65 

Energy  of  commercial  explosives,  267 

English  magazine  regulations,  213 

Equivalent  weight,  21 

Ether,  51,  65,  810,  83,  108,  132,  191, 

234 

Ethyl,  64 

Ethyl  alcohol,  810,  82,  83,  133 
Ethyl  ether,  810,  81ft,  83,  108,  191 
Evaporation,  25 
Evaporation  dishes,  296 
Even  numbers,  law  of,  19 
Exothermic,  26 

Experiments,  laboratory,  271-302 
No.  1.     Formation  of  metallic  ox- 
ide, 271 

No.  2.     Formation  of  metallic  hy- 
droxide, 272 
No.  3.     Formation  of  non-metallic 

oxide,  273 
No.  4.     Combination  of  acid  and 

basic  oxides,  274 
No.  5.     Formation  of  an  oxyacid, 

275 
No.  6.     Formation  of  a  hydracid, 

276 
No.  7.     Exchange  of  hydrogen  for 

a  metal,  276 
No.  8.     Formation  of  an  ous  acid, 

277 
No.  9.     Formation  of  an  ic  acid, 

277 
No.  10.     Formation  of  an  ite  salt, 

277 
No.  11.     Formation  of  an  ate  salt, 

278 

No.  12.     Synthetical  reaction,  279 
No.  13.     Analytical  reaction,  279 
No.  14.     Metathetical       reaction, 

280 

No.  15.     Influence  of  temperature 

on  chemical  action,  280 

No.  16.     Influence  of  liquid  state 

on  chemical  action,  280 


376 


INDEX. 


Experiments,  laboratory  (continued) 
No.  17.     Influence   of  insolubility 

in  reactions,  281 
No.  18.     Influence  of  volatility  in 

reactions,  281 

No.  19.     Influence  of  gaseous  en- 
velope in  reactions.  .282 
No.  20.     Catalytic  action,  2£2 
No.  21.     Disposing  affinity,  283 
No.  22.     Production  of  the  alka- 
lies, 283 
No.  23.     Production  of  the  alkaline 

earths,  284 
No.  24.     Production  of  other  me- 

tcllic  hydroxides,  285 
No.  25.     Production     of     oxygen, 

285 
No.  26.     Production  of  hydrogen, 

286 
No.  27.     Production    of    chlorine, 

286 

No.  28.     Production  of  carbon  di- 
oxide, 286 
No.  29.     Production   of   ammonia 

gas,  287 
No.  30.     Production   of  hydrogen 

sulphide,  287 
No.  31.     Production  of  nitric  acid, 

288 

No.  32.     Production      of     hydro- 
chloric acid,  288 
No.  33.     Test  for  soluble  chloride,  I 

288 
No.  34.     Test  for  soluble  sulphate, 

289 

No.  35.     Test  for  soluble  hydrox- 
ide, 289 

No.  36.     Test  for  soluble  carbon- 
ate, 289 
No.  37.     Test  for  soluble  calcium 

salt,  289 

No.  38.     Test  for  a  nitrate  in  solu- 
tion, 290 
No.  39.     Test  for   a  soluble  iron 

salt,  290 
No.  40.     Production  of  an  acetone 

colloid,  291 
No.  41.     Production   of   an   ether 

alcohol  colloid,  291 
Experiments,  trinitrotoluol,  81a 
Exploders,  167-178;    ingredients  of, 
167;     associated    materials,    167; 
necessary  to  vary  exploding  com- 
positions,   167;     different    primer 
compositions   for   different   explo- 
sives,  167,   177;    fulminates,   168; 
fulminate  mercury,  discarded  from 
small-arm  percussion  compositions, 


U.  S.  A.  service,  167;  chlorate  mix- 
ture substituted  for,  167;  fulminic 
acid,  168;  manufacture  of  mer- 
cury fulminate,  170;  physical  prop- 
erties of  mercury  fulminate,  171; 
means  of  exploding  mercury  ful- 
minate, 171;  volume  of  gases,  171; 
heat  of  combination,  172;  heat 
of  combustion,  173;  temperature 
of  explosion,  173;  explosive  reac- 
tion, 173;  pressure  of  explosion, 
173;  cap  composition,  174;  sand 
test,  176 

Exploding  machine,  243,  251 

Explosion  by  influence,  143 

Explosions,  91-97;  classification  of, 
91;  low  order,  92;  high  order,  95; 
progressive,  92. 

Explosive  compound,  50,  107 

Explosive  D,  explosive  force  of,  8 la, 
162 

Explosive  gelatin,  159-161,  267; 
chemical  principle  involved  in, 
159;  proportion  of  ingredients  of, 
159;  manufacture  of,  159;  color 
of,  160;  stability  of,  160;  special 
primer  for,  160;  effect  of  camphor 
in,  160;  effect  of  benzene  in,  160; 
sensitiveness  of,  160;  effect  of 
freezing  on,  160;  effect  of  high 
temperatures,  160;  gelatin  dyna- 
mite, 161;  stability  of,  heat  test 
for,  160,  184;  liquefaction  test  for, 
184;  exudation  test  for,  185  . 

Explosive  mixture,  50,  107 

Explosive  molecule,  50,  107 

Explosive  projectiles,  see  Projectiles. 

Explosive  reaction,  46-7,  91 ;  for  gun- 
powder, 46;  for  mercury  fulminate, 
173;  for  guncotton,  144;  for  nitro- 
glycerine, 150;  for  cordite,  48;  for 
picric  acid,  48 

Explosives,  general  remarks  on,  91-7; 
substances  used  in  manufacture  of, 
50-90;  classification  of,  91;  pro- 
gressive, 98-134;  detonating,  135- 
166;  service  tests  of,  179-90;  pro- 
tection, 212;  storage,  212;  stor- 
age regulations  for,  229-230;  table 
of  relative  strengths  of,  267;  ar- 
rangement of  charges  for  firing, 
266;  weights  of  charges  for  demo- 
litions, 255,  261,  262,  266,  267,  268; 
energy  of  commercial,  267;  trans- 
portation of,  307-345;  forbidden 
and  condemned  transportation, 
310,  338;  acceptable,  for  shipment 
by  express,  341 


INDEX. 


377 


Explosive  wave,  96,  97,  142 
Express,  regulations  for  transporta- 
tion of  explosives  by,  336-344 

FILTERING  paper,  295 
Fire-cracker  composition,  59 
Fire-damp,  55 
Fireworks,    transportation    of,    313, 

321,  339,  340,  343 

Firing  a  charge  of  explosive  for  demo- 
litions, 241-243 

"  Firing  "  in  manufacture  of  nitro- 
glycerine, 146 

Fixed  proportions,  law  of,  27 

Flasks,  glass,  295 

Forbidden  explosives,  transportation 
of,  310,  338 

Forcite,  158 

Formic  acid,  89 

Formulas,  molecular,  7,  42;  graphic, 
18,  21;  structural,  18,  21;  empiri- 
cal, 41 

Fortifying  acid,  124,  147 

Fossano  powder,  105 

Free-acid  test,  180 

Friction  composition,  58,  174 

Fulminates,  91,  167-178;  of  gold, 
168;  of  silver,  168;  mercury,  dis- 
carded from  small-arms  percussion 
composition,  in  U.  S.  A.  service, 
167;  chlorate  mixture  substituted 
for,  167-174;  manufacture  of  ful- 
minate of  mercury,  170;  trans- 
portation of,  317,  325,  328,  338 

Fulmination,  96 

Fulminic  acid,  168-169 

Funnels,  295 

Fuses,   transportation   of,   312,   320, 

322,  326,  328,  339,  342 
Fusing-point,  25 
Fusion,  25 

GELATIN  dynamite,  161 

German  heat  test,  180,  187 

Giant  powder,  156,  158 

Ginite,  56 

Glazing,  103 

Glycerides,  85 

Glycerine,  51,  810,  85 

Glyceryl  hydroxide,  85 

Grains,  powder,  102,  106,  201 

Granulation  of  black  powder,    102; 

of  smokeless  powder,  128,  200,  201 ; 

of  powder  for  cartridges  for  small 

arms,  209 

Graphic  formulas,  18-21 
Graphite,  192 
Gravity,  5 


Green,  Prof.  Arthur  G.,  77 

Green  fire,  58 

Grenades,  hand,  charges  for,  90 

Guncottpn,  121,  135-144,  265-266; 
explosive  reaction  for,  47,  144; 
manufacture  of,  135;  primer,  136, 
243;  physical  properties  of,  136; 
decomposing  reagent,  137;  use  of, 
137;  safety  of,  137;  stability  in 
storage,  137-138;  evidences  of  de- 
composition of,  138;  treatment  of 
decomposing,  138;  effect  of  light 
on,  138;  effect  of  water  on,  139, 
140;  effect  of  NaCO3  on,  140;  ef- 
fect of  freezing  on,  140;  effect  of 
variation  of  temperature  on,  141; 
means  of  exploding,  141;  rate  of 
.burning  of,  141;  specific  heat  of 
gases  resulting  from  explosion  of, 
141;  heat  of  explosion  of,  141,  143; 
temperature  of  explosion  of,  141; 
pressure  of  gases  resulting  from  ex- 
plosion of,  141-142,  143;  explosive 
wave  of,  96,  142;  primers  for,  142; 
induced  or  sympathetic  explosions 
of,  143;  products  of  explosion  of, 
144;  potassium-iodide-starch  test 
for,  185;  storage  regulations  for, 
230;  transportation  of,  345 

Gunpowder,  explosive  reaction  for, 
46 

Guns,  increase  of  lengths  of  bores  of, 
106;  demolition  of,  268 

Guttmann,  121, 139, 140, 148, 168,212 

HALOGENS,  role  of  in  war,  368 

Hand  grenades,  charges  for,  90 

Handling  explosives,  240-251;  pre- 
cautions to  be  taken  in,  240;  in 
transportation,  307-345 

Haussermann,  81a 

Heat,  in  chemical  actions,  25;  unit  of, 
34,  92;  effect  of,  on  nitromole- 
cules,  139,  179;  general  effects  of, 
26,  36,  95;  of  combustion,  93;  tests, 
179,  182,  184,  186,  187,  197,  209, 
233,  234 

Hecla  powder,  157 

Hercules  powder,  157 

Heterogeneous  bodies,  2,  3 

Hexagonal  powder,  102,  106 

High  explosion,  91,  95 

High  explosive,  91;  135-166;  ship- 
ment of,  311,  315,  338;  storage  of, 
229 

High  nitration,  120 

Homogeneous  bodies,  2,  3 

Humidity  of  magazines,  219-228 


378 


INDEX. 


Hydracids,  13,  16 
Hydrocarbons,  51,  64 
Hydrocellulose,  89,  120 
Hydrogen,  role  of  in  war,  363 
Hydroxides,  15,  16,  17,  49,  81 
Hydroxybenzene,  74 
Hydroxyl,  15,  17,  64 

INDUCED  explosions,  143 

Indurite,  70,  123 

Ingredients  of  charcoal  powders, 
black,  98;  brown,  104 

Insolubility,  principle  of,  36 

Insoluble  nitrocellulose,  120,  121 

Inspection  of  powder,  231-234;  of 
cars  for  transportation  of  explo- 
sives, 328 

International  atomic  weights,  372 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
regulations  for  the  transportation 
of  explosives  by  freight  and  by  ex- 
press, 307-345 

Iodide,  nitrogen,  351 

Iodine,  role  of  in  war,  370 

JOINTING  wires,  246-248 
Judson  powder,  157,  158 

KEKULE,  168 
Ketones,  66,  810,  Slh 
Kieselguhr,  153,  155 

LABELS  for  explosives,  341,  344 

Laboratory  experiments,  271-292 
(see  "Experiments");    apparatus 
and  materials,  292;  notes,  293 

Laflin  &  Rand  exploder,  248-251 

Lamps,  297 

Law,  of  even  numbers,  19;  Avoga- 
dro's,  28;  of  fixed  proportions,  27; 
of  multiples,  27;  of  condensation, 
30-1,  39;  U.  S.,  regulating  trans- 
portation of  explosives,  345 

"  Leaking  "  dynamite,  154 

Length  of  bores  of  guns,  106 

Light,  effects  of,  138,  234 

Light  oil,  72 

Lighting  magazines,  228-229;  234 

Limit  state  of  nitrocellulose,  119 

Litharge,  79 

Litmus,  10,  231;  test,  180 

Lodge,  Oliver,  213 

Lot  of  powder,  124 

Low  explosion,  92 

Low  explosive,  91 

Low  nitration,  120 

Lunge,  110 

Lyddite,  77,  80,  162 


MACARONI  press,  128 

Magazines,  212-239;  storage,  212; 
service,  212;  English,  regulations, 
213;  heating  of,  213;  classification 
of  explosives  for  storage,  214-215; 
conditions,  214-215,  239,  241; 
limiting  temperatures  for,  216; 
arrangement  of  packages  in,  218; 
ventilation  of,  219;  lighting  of, 
228;  special  regulations  for  high 
explosives,  229-231;  distances  from 
inhabited  buildings,  238,239;  reg- 
ulations for  powder,  231-236;  rec- 
ord book,  233;  regulations  of  Ord- 
nance Dept.,  U.  S.  Army,  235 

Magneto-exploder,  243-248 

Mallet,  Dr.  J.  W.,  Slh,  86 

Mammoth  powder,  105 

Marking  of  explosives  for  shipment, 
313,  317-322,  341,  344 

Marks,  130 

Masonry  demolitions,  252;  tunnels, 
263 

Maas,  1,  2,  32 

Materials  for  laboratory  desk,  292 

Matter,  forms  of,  1 

Maximite,  166 

Maxim-Schupphaus  powder,  133,  134 

Maximum  pressures  in  bores  of  guns, 
106 

Meal  powder,  102 

Mean  nitration,  120 

Melinite,  77,  161,  162 

Mendeleefs  Vumo  relation,  46,  48;  ex- 
periments, 131;  pyrocollodion,  111, 
112  131—133 

Mercury  fulminate,  167,  170,  177 

Metallurgy,  role  of  in  war,  350 

Metals,  3^,  9 

Metathetical  reactions,  8 

Methyl,  17,  64 

Methyl-violet  test,  236 

Microcrith,  34 

Mill-cake,  101 

Mines,  Bureau  of,  176,  177,  178 

Mines,  land,  265-266 

Mirbane  oil,  68,  89 

Misfire,  241 

Mixtures,  3,  23,  50,  107 

Moisture,  219 

Molded  powders,  106 

Molding-press,  134 

Molecular  formula,  7,  42 

Molecular  weight,  32 

Molecule,  1,2, 5, 6,17, 19,  24, 28, 50, 107 

Monochlorides,  48 

Mononitrobenzene,  69,  70 

Mononitrocellulose,  109 


INDEX. 


379 


Mononitroglycerine,  145 
Mononitronaphthalene,  73 
Mortars,  302 
Mowbray,  151 
Multiples,  law  of,  27 
Monroe,  70,  142,  148,  155,  174 

NAPHTHALENE,  72-74 

Nascent  state,  37,  96 

Navy  powder,  133 

Navy  primer,  174 

Nitrates,  13,  48,  51,  133 

Nitrating  acids,  124 

Nitre,  51 

Nitre-bed,  51 

Nitrites,  13 

Nitrobenzene,  68,  69 

Nitrocellulose,  98,  107-122,  125,  133, 
134;  Army  Ord.  test,  186;  man- 
ufacture, 192;  testing,  194-197; 
Bruley's  experiments  with,  1 12-1 19 ; 
nitro  by-products  associated  with, 
119;  cause  affecting  the  nitration 
of  cellulose,  118;  time  of  steeping 
of,  118;  Will's  experiments  with, 
119;  nomenclature  of,  120;  dry 
transportation  of,  310,  338 

Nitroglycerine,  144-152,  267;  man- 
ufacture of,  145;  "  firing  "  of,  146; 
physical  properties  of,  147;  effect 
of  cold  on,  148;  solubility  of,  148; 
decomposing  reagent,  148,  151, 
152;  color  test  of,  148;  physical 
tests'of,  148;  thawing  of,  148-149; 
stability  of,  149;  evidences  of  de- 
composition of,  149,  151;  tem- 
perature limits  for  storage  of,  150; 
means  of  exploding,  150;  danger  of 
empty  receptacles,  150;  explosive 
reaction  of,  47,  150;  gaseous 
products  of  explosion  of,  151 ;  tem- 
perature of  explosion  of,  151; 
force  of  explosion  of,  151;  danger 
of  transporting,  151;  storage  of, 
151;  heat  test  of,  182;  storage  reg- 
ulations for,  229-230;  transpor- 
tation of,  310,  315,  338 

Nitrogen,  oxidation  of  N  of  air,  54; 
content,  110,  117,  197,  199,  202; 
iodide,  351 ;  role  of  in  war,  350 

Nitrohydrocellulose,  120,  160 

Nitroxyl,  17 

Nitryl,  17,  50,  64 

Nobel,  141,  150,  151,  153,  159 

Nomenclature,  chemical,  9-16;  of 
nitrocellulose,  120 

Non-metals,  3,  4,  9 

Notation,  chemical,  6-7 


Notes,  laboratory,  293-302 
Notodden  process  of  oxidizing  nitro- 
gen of  the  air,  55 

OLEFINS,  65 

Orthoparadinitrotoluene,  81a 
Oxidation  of  nitrogen  of  the  ah*,  54,  55 
Oxides,  9-12,  16,  49 
Oxyacids,  12,  13 
Oxygen,  51,  53,  57 

PACKING  of  explosives  for  shipment, 
308,  309,  313-321,  323-325,  341, 
342,  343 

Paraffins,  65 

Parchment  paper,  89 

Percentage  composition,  41 

Percolation  of  water  in  magazines, 
221 

Percussion  caps,  174 

Perforated  prism  powder,  106 

Perissad,   19 

Permitted  explosives,  see  Explosives. 

Peruvian  saltpetre,  54 

Petit,  35 

Phenic  acid,  74 

Phenol,  51,  74;  trinitro-,  76 

Phenolphthalein,  76,  180 

Phenomena,  physical  and  chemical, 
22 

Phenyls,  64,  66 

Phosphates,  49 

Physical  properties,  22;  of  powder, 
101 

Physical  tests  of  powder  grains,  202 

Picker  machine  in  manufacture  of 
nitrocellulose,  123 

Picrates,  79,  80;  ammonium,  80 

Picric  acid,  76;  manufacture  of,  77, 
derivatives,  161 

Piers,  bridge,  demolition  of,  259 

Placards  on  cars  containing  explo- 
sives, 328-332,  335,  341,  343 

Plastomenite,  134 

Poacher,  126 

Poaching,  193 

Potassium-iqdide-starch  heat  test,  180 

Potassium  nitrate,  51 

Powder  B,  133 

Powder  BN,  132,  134 

Powder,  delivery  and  acceptance  of, 
130 

Powder  grains,  dimensions  of,  201 

Powders,  charcoal,  98-106;  nitro- 
cellulose, 98,  107;  Army  Ordnance 
test,  188;  black,  98,  265-266; 
brown,  98,  104;  meal,  102;  spe- 
cial, 105;  prismatic,  105;  mam- 


38o 


INDEX. 


moth,  105;  pebble,  105;  Fossano, 
105;  navy,  133,  134;  army,  133, 
134;  ballistic  efficiency  of,  133; 
U.  S.  Service  specifications,  190, 
211;  finished,  209;  magazine  ex- 
aminations, 231;  transportation, 
311,  312,  314,  315,  317,  322,  326, 
328,  338 

Precautions,  240-244 

Precipitate,  37 

Preparing  a  charge  for  firing,  244 

Press-cake,  102 

Pressures,  94,  131,  173,  204,  207 

Primer  cartridge,  245 

Primers,  167,  177,  241-242,245;  com- 
mercial, 175;  navy,  174;  army, 
176;  primer  cartridge,  245;  trans- 
portation of,  312-313,  320-321,  323, 
326,  330,  339,  342 

Problems,  stoichiometrical,  40-8 

Products,  8 

Progressive  explosives,  91,  98 

Projectiles,  transportation  of,  312, 
319,  338 

Propelling  explosives,  91 

Propenyl  alcohol,  85 

Properties,  general,  of  important  sub- 
stances, 48 

Propionic  acid,  89 

Pulp,  wood,  nitrification  of,  123 

Pulper,  126 

Pulping,  193 

Pure  colloid  powders,  130,  132,  133 

Purification,  119,  125 

Pyrocellulqse,  121,  133 

Pyrocollodion,  112 

Pyrogallol,  75 

Pyrotechnic  composition,  58 

QUATERNARY  compound,  15 
Quinone,  66,  Slh,  87 

RACKAROCK,  77,  267 

Radicals,  17,  64 

Railroads,  demolition  of,  264 

Rails,  steel,  demolition  of,  268 

Railways,  transportation  of  explo- 
sives on,  307-345 

Raw  materials,  190 

Reactions,  chemical,  7-9,  39,  91 

Reagents,  chemical,  8,  292 

Red  fire,  58 

Regulations,  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission,  for  transportation  of 
explosives,  307-345 

Rendrock,  156 

Revetment  walls,  demolition  of,  252 


Rifleite,  133 

Robinson,  Capt.,  104 

Rodman,  Gen.  T.  J.,  experiments  of, 

104 

Role  of  Chemistry  in  the  War,  38,  349 
Roux,  141 

Rubber  sheeting,  302 
Rubber  stoppers,  301 
Rubber  tubing,  301 

SAFETY  explosives,  56 

Safety  fuse,  see  Fuse. 

Safety  nitro  powder,  156 

Safety  precautions,  240-244 

Safety  squibs,  see  Squibs. 

Saltpetre,  51,  54,  352 

Salts,  10,  14,  16 

Samples  of  explosives  for  laboratory 
examination,  transportation  of,  340 
—341 

Samples  of  powder  for  test,  194-197, 
201,  209 

Sand-bath,  298 

Sand  test  method  of  blasting  powder, 
176 

Sarrou,  141,  143 

Saturated  molecule,  19 

Schaw,  R.  E.,  259 

Schultze  powder,  134 

Schweitzer's  reagent,  88 

Shell  fillers,  67,  161-166;  conditions 
prescribed  by  Army  Ordnance 
Board,  162-166;  charging  of,  241 

Shimose  shell-filler,  77 

Shipment  of  explosives,  307-345; 
from  connecting  car  lines,  327; 

Shipping  names,   322 

Small-arms  ammunition,  transporta- 
tion of,  318,  326,  330,  339,  342 

Small  arms,  powder  for  ball  car- 
tridges for,  209 

Smokeless  powder,  explosive  reac- 
tion for,  47;  manufacture  of,  123, 
198;  quality,  198;  tests,  186,  198, 
201-211;  specifications  and  tests, 
207;  for  ball  cartridges  for  small 
arms,  209;  examination  of,  in  mag- 
azines, 231;  regulations  of  Ord- 
nance Dept.,  U.  S.  Army,  235-236; 
handling,  240-241 ;  transportation 
of,  311,  312,  317,  322,  326,  330,  338 

Sodium  carbonate,  140 

Sodium  nitrate,  54 

Solubilities,  general,  of  substances,  48 

Solubility  of  nitrocellulose,  110,  119, 
120,  121,  122 

Solutions,  23,  36 

Solvent,  23;  recovery,  129 


INDEX. 


Solvents,  82,  89,  120,  122,  199,  209, 
210;  ether-alcohol,  122;  acetone, 
122 

Spatulas,  296 

Special  powders,  105,  106 

Specifications  for  U.  S.  nitrocellulose 
and  smokeless  powders  for  cannon, 
190,  207 

Specific  gravity,  29,  30 

Specific  heat,  34-35,  93,  94,  141 

Spent  acids,  124 

Spontaneous  combustion,  59,  63 

Squibs,  safety,  transportation  of,  313, 
322 

Stability  of  nitrocellulose,  119 

Stability  tests,  179,  209 

Stillman,  Dr.  Thomas  B.,  156,  161 

Stockades,  demolition  of,  264,  268 

Stoichiometry,  38-40;  problems  in, 
41-48 

Stoppers,  cork,  302;  rubber,  301 

Storage  of  explosives,  temperature, 
141-150;  regulations  for,  212-239 

Storm,  C.  G.,  176 

Strengths  of  explosives,  267 

Structural  formulas,  18-21 

Stuff-chest,  135 

Subaqueous  demolitions,  262 

Sublimation,  25 

Substances,  chemical  classification  of, 
11,  16 

Sulphates,  13,  48 

Sulphides,  13,  49 

Sulphites,  13 

Sulphur,  59-61 

Sulphuric  acid,  effect  on  dry  cellu- 
lose, 89,  90 

Sulphuric  ether,  84 

Sulphur  solution,  152,  229 

Sunlight,  138,  200,  234 

Supports,  iron,  296,  297 

Swiss  normal  powder,  133 

Symbols,  chemical,  6,  38-9 

Sympathetic  explosion,  143 

Synthetical  reactions,  8 

TEMPERATURE,  25,  94;  of  magazines 

216,  219,  234 
Ternary  compounds,  15 
Test,  samples,  196,  204,  208,  231 
Tests,  chemical,  10;    heat,  179,  180, 
182, 184, 186, 187, 194-195, 209, 232- 
233;    physical,  202;    methyl  violet, 
236 

Tests,  service,  135°  C.  German,  180, 
187;  115°  C.  Army  Ordnance, 
180,  188-190;  potassium-iodide- 
starch,  180;  litmus,  180;  free 


acid,  180;  free  alkali,  180;  mer- 
curic chloride,  180;  dynamite, 
182;  nitroglycerine,  182;  explo- 
sive gelatin,  184,  185;  guncotton, 
185;  liquefaction,  184;  exudation, 
185;  ballistic,  189;  color,  10,  76, 
236;  trinitrotoluol,  solidifying  point, 
softening  point,  specific  gravity, 
softening  test,  81e;  staining  and 
heat  tests,  ash,  acidity,  SI/;  nitro- 
cellulose, Army  Ordnance,  188; 
"  dry-house  "  condition  curve  of 
residual  solvent,  "  packed  "  con- 
dition curve  of  total  volatiles. 
curve  of  loss,  Ordnance  115°  C. 
189;  sampling  heat,  194;  Ger- 
man, nitration,  196;  soluble  and 
insoluble,  197;  smokeless  powder, 
186,  198;  sampling,  201;  physical 
test,  202;  German,  203,  210;  Ord- 
nance, 203;  surveillance,  198,  203; 
ballistic,  204;  velocity  and  pres- 
sure, loading,  211 

Test-tubes,  294;  cleaner,  294;  racks, 
294;  draining-pegs,  294 

Tetranitromethylanilin,  178 

Thawing  nitroglycerine  or  dynamite, 
148-149,  155,  241 

Thompson,  J.  J.,  2,  21 

Time-fuse  train,  244 

Tolite,  see  Trinitrotoluol,  81 

Toluene,  Sla 

Torpedoes,  241-242 

Transportation  of  explosives,  307- 
345;  lawregulating,  345-246;  hand- 
ling, 323;  loading  in  cars,  324; 
cars  containing,  333;  in  yards,  334; 
shifting  cars,  334 

Trees,  demolition  of,  267 

Trilite,  see  Trinitrotoluol,  81 

Trinitrobenzene,  71 

Trinitrocellulose,  109 

Trinitroglycerine,  145 

Trinitromethylbenzene,  see  Trinitro- 
toluol, 81 

Trinitromethylnitramine,  178 

Trinitrophenol,  76 

Trinitrotoluene,  see  Trinitrotoluol,  81 

Trinitrotoluol,  structural  formula, 
relation  to  benzene  series,  chemical 
similarity  to  picric  acid  and  the 
picrates,  81;  explosive  force,  8 la, 
Sid;  experiments,  Sla;  manufac- 
ture, 81a;  properties,  81  c;  chem- 
ical specifications  for  military  tri- 
nitrotoluol, 8 la",  tests,  81e 

Trinol,  see  Trinitrotoluol,  81 

Tritone,  see  Trinitrotoluol,  81 


382 


INDEX. 


Trotol,  see  Trinitrotoluol,  81 
Trotyl,  see  Trinitrotoluol,  81 
Tubing,  glass,  300;  rubber,  301 
Tunnels,  demolition  of,  263 

UNIT  of  heat,  34,  92 
Units  for  use  in  stoichiometry,  40 
U.  S.  Army  powder,  133,  134,  188-211 
U.  S.  Navy  powder,  133,  134 

VALENCY,  3-4,  5,  18-21 

Vaporization,  25 

Velocity    and    pressures,    131,    204; 

tests  211;  and  lengths  or  bases  of 

guns,  131 

Ventilation  of  magazines,  219-228 
Vielle's  experiments,   110;    series  of 

nitrocelluloses,  111,  121;    powder, 

133;  guncotton,  141,  143 
Vinic  alcohol,  82 
Volatiles,  202,  209 


Volatility,  37 

Volume,  standard,  28-9,  39 

Vulcan  powder,  157 

WALKE,  Slh,  86,  148 

Wash-bottle,  299 

Washer,  123 

Washing,  119,  123,  125,  126,  127,  194 

Watch-glass,  302 

Water,  in  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids, 
114;  in  guncotton,  136;  effect  of, 
on  storage  of  guncotton,  139 

Water-bath,  297 

Wave,  explosive,  96,  97,  142 

Web  of  powder  grains,  106,  209 

Weight,  5;  equivalent,  21 

Will,  experiments  of,  110,  119 

Wires,  jointing  of,  246-8 

Wood  pulp,  nitrification  of,  123 

Wrecks  of  cars  containing  explosives, 
335 

Wringer,  centrifugal,  123 


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